Unit II Revision

CAPE SYLLABUS
MODULES 1, II, III
Question 1 type questions
t/s
(i) Plot the required linear
20 36 3.58 graph
40 30 3.40
60 25 3.22
80 20 3.00
(ii)The value of the
100 18 2.89 current at time t = 0
120 15 2.71
140 12 2.48
(iii)The time constant for
the discharge

RC = 1/slope
 Electric Fields
• Electric field strength / intensity at a point is
defined as the force per unit positive charge
acting at that point
• {a vector; Unit: N C-1 or V m-1}
• E = F / q → F = Qe
• The electric force on a positive charge in an
electric field is in the direction of E, while the
electric force on a negative charge is opposite to
the direction of E. Hence a +ve charge placed in
an electric field will accelerate in the direction of
E and gain KE {& simultaneously lose PE}
Electric Field lines
 Coulomb's law:
• The (mutual) electric force F acting between 2
point charges Q1 and Q2 separated by a
distance r is given by:

• F = Q1Q2 / 4πεor2 where ε0: permittivity of free

space
 Electric Field
Electric field strength due to a Point Charge Q :
E = Q / 4πεor2
In the figure below, determine the point (other
than at infinity) at which the total electric field
strength is zero.
• Let this point be a distance r from the left charge.
• Since the total electric field strength is zero,
E6μ = E-2.5μ
• [6μ /4πεo (1 + r)2] = [2.5μ /4πεor2 (Note: negative sign
for -2.5 μC has been ignored here)
• 6 / (1 + r)2 = 2.5 / r2
• √(6r) = 2.5 (1 + r)
• r = 1.82 m
The point lies on a straight line where the charges
lie, 1.82 m to the left of the -2.5 μC charge.
 Uniform Field
• Uniform electric field between 2 Charged
Parallel Plates: E = V/d,
d: perpendicular distance between the plates,
V: potential difference between plates
• Path of charge moving at 90° to electric field:
parabolic.
Beyond the point where it exits the field, the
path is a straight line, at a tangent to the
parabola at exit.
• An electron (m = 9.11 x 10-31 kg; q = -1.6 x 10-19 C)
moving with a speed of 1.5 x 107 ms-1, enters a
region between 2 parallel plates, which are
20 mm apart and 60 mm long. The top plate is
at a potential of 80 V relative to the lower
plate. Determine the angle through which the
electron has been deflected as a result of
passing through the plates.
Time taken for the electron to travel 60 mm horizontally =
Distance / Speed = 60 x 10-3 / 1.5 x 107 = 4 x 10-9 s
E = V / d = 80 / 20 x 10-3 = 4000 V m-1
a = F / m = eE / m = (1.6 x 10-19)(4000) / (9.1 x 10-31) =
7.0 x 1014 ms-2
vy = uy + at = 0 + (7.0 x 1014)( 4 x 10-9) = 2.8 x 106 ms-1
tan θ = vy / vx = 2.8 x 106 / 1.5 x 107 = 0.187
Therefore θ = 10.6°
 Effect of a uniform electric field on the motion
of charged particles
• Equipotential surface: a surface where the
electric potential is constant.
• Potential gradient = 0, ie E along surface = 0 }
Hence no work is done when a charge is
moved along this surface.{ W=QV, V=0 }

• Electric field lines must meet this surface at

right angles.
 Electric Potential V
• Electric potential at a point: is defined as the
work done in moving a unit positive charge
from infinity to that point, { a scalar; unit: V }
ie V = W / Q
• The electric potential at infinity is defined as
zero. At any other point, it may be positive or
negative depending on the sign of Q that sets
up the field. {Contrast gravitational potential.}
• Electric Potential due to a point charge Q :
V = Q / 4πεor
 Current Electricity
• Electric current is the rate of flow of charge.
{NOT: charged particles}
• Electric charge Q passing a point is defined as
the product of the (steady) current at that
point and the time for which the current flows,
Q=It
• One coulomb is defined as the charge flowing
per second pass a point at which the current is
one ampere. Derive I= neVA
• Potential difference is defined as the energy
transferred from electrical energy to other
forms of energy when unit charge passes
through an electrical device,
V=W/Q
• P. D. = Energy Transferred / Charge = Power /
Current or, is the ratio of the power supplied
to the device to the current flowing,
V=P/I
1 volt = One joule per coulomb
 E.M.F and P.D.
• Potential Difference refers to the difference in
potential between any given two points.
For example, if the potential of point A is 1 V
and the potential at point B is 5 V, the PD
across AB, or VAB , is 4 V. In addition, when
there is no energy loss between two points of
the circuit, the potential of these points is
same and thus the PD across is 0 V.
• Electromotive force (Emf) is defined as the
energy transferred / converted from non-
electrical forms of energy into electrical
energy when unit charge is moved round a
complete circuit. i.e.
• EMF = Energy Transferred per unit charge
EMF = W/Q
• EMF refers to the electrical energy generated
from non-electrical energy forms, whereas PD
refers to electrical energy being changed into
non-electrical energy
• Electrical Power, P = V I = I2 . R = V2 / R
• Resistance is defined as the ratio of the potential
difference across a component to the current
flowing through it ,
R = V/I
• {It is NOT defined as the gradient of a V-I graph;
however for an Ohmic conductor, its resistance
equals the gradient of its V-I graph as this graph is
a straight line which passes through the origin}
• The Ohm: is the resistance of a resistor if there is a
current of 1 A flowing through it when the pd
across it is 1 V, i.e.,
1 Ω = One volt per ampere
• Ohm's law: The current in a component is
proportional to the potential difference across
it provided physical conditions (e.g. temp) stay
constant.
• R = ρL / A {for a conductor of length l, uniform
x-sectional area A and resistivity ρ}
• Resistivity is defined as the resistance of a
material of unit cross-sectional area and unit
length. {From R = ρl / A , ρ = RA / L}
• Internal resistance is the resistance to current
flow within the power source. It reduces the
potential difference (not EMF) across the
terminal of the power supply when it is
delivering a current.
The voltage across the
resistor, V = IR,
The voltage lost to
internal resistance = Ir
Thus, the EMF of the
cell,
E = IR + Ir = V + Ir
Therefore If I = 0 A or if
r = 0 Ω, V = E
 DC CIRCUITS
• Derive expressions for :
Resistors in Series: R = R1 + R2 + ...
Resistors in Parallel: 1/R = 1/R1 + 1/R2 + …
For potential divider with 2 resistors in series,
Two resistors, of resistance 300 kΩ and 500 kΩ respectively,
form a potential divider with outer junctions maintained at
potentials of +3 V and -15 V.

Determine the potential at the junction X between the

resistors.
The potential difference across the 300 kΩ resistor =
300 / (300 + 500) [3 - (-15)] = 6.75 V
The potential at X = 3 - 6.75 = -3.75 V.
• In the figure on the right, the
thermistor has a resistance of
800 Ω when hot, and a
resistance of 5000 Ω when
cold. Determine the potential
at W when the temperature is
hot.
• When thermistor is hot,
potential difference across it
• = [800 / (800 + 1700)] x (7 - 2)
= 1.6 V
• The potential at W = 2 + 1.6 V
= 3.6 V
Capacitor
 Electromagnetism
• When a conductor carrying a current is placed in a
magnetic field, it experiences a magnetic force.

Suppose the angle between the current I and the field B

is θ , the magnitude of the force F on the conductor is
given by F = BILsinθ
• Magnetic flux density B is defined as the force
acting per unit current in a wire of unit length
at right-angles to the field
• B = F / ILsin θ → F = B I L sin θ {θ: Angle
between the B and L}
• {NB: write down the above defining equation
& define each symbol if you're not able to give
the “statement form”.}
• Direction of the magnetic force is always
perpendicular to the plane containing the
current I and B {even if θ ≠ 0}
• The Tesla is defined as the magnetic flux density of a
magnetic field that causes a force of one newton to
act on a current of one ampere in a wire of length
one metre which is perpendicular to the magnetic
field.
• CURRENT BALANCE (Determination of B)

By the Principle of moments,

Clockwise moments = Anticlockwise moments
mg ∙ x = F ∙ y = BILsin90 ∙ y
B = mgx / ILy
 For moving charges
• Force acting on a moving charge: F = B Q v sin θ {θ: Angle
between B and v.}
• The direction of this force may be found by using Fleming's
left hand rule.
The angle θ determines the type of path the charged
particle will take when moving through a uniform magnetic
field:
• If θ = 0°, the charged particle takes a straight path since it is
not deflected (F = 0)
• If θ = 90°, the charged particle takes a circular path since
the force at every point in the path is perpendicular to the
motion of the charged particle.
• Since F is always be perpendicular to v {even if θ ≠0},
the magnetic force can provide the centripetal force, →
Bqv = mv2 / r
 Velocity selector
• A setup whereby an E-field and a B-field are
perpendicular to each other such that they
exert equal & opposite forces on a moving
charge {if the velocity is “a certain value”}
• Magnetic Force = Electric Force
Bqv=qE
v=E/B
• Only particles with speed = E / B emerge from
the cross-fields undeflected.
 EFFECT OF ADDING FERROUS MATERIAL

• The strength of the generated magnetic field

can be increased (by about 1000 times) by
adding a ferrous (iron) core inside the
solenoid. This is because a ferrous material
has a higher permeability than air. Another
explanation is that iron, being a ferromagnetic
material, becomes magnetised when placed
into the solenoid, thus contributing to the
overall magnetic field strength of the solenoid.
 Electromagnetic Induction
• Magnetic Flux is defined as the product of the
magnetic flux density and the area normal to
the field through which the field is passing. It
is a scalar quantity and its S.I. unit is the
weber (Wb).
φ=BA
• The Weber is defined as the magnetic flux if a
flux density of one tesla passes
perpendicularly through an area of one square
metre.
• A magnetic field of flux density 20 T passes down through a
coil of of wire, making an angle of 60° to the plane of the coil
as shown. The coil has 500 turns and an area of 25 cm2.
Determine:
• i) the magnetic flux through the coil
φ=BA
= 20 (sin 60°) 25 x 10-4
= 0.0433 Wb
• (ii) the flux linkage through the coil
Φ=Nφ
= 500 x 0.0433 = 21.65 Wb
 Faraday’s and Lenz’s Law
• Faraday's Law
The magnitude of induced EMF is directly
proportional/equal to the rate of change of
magnetic flux-linkage.
|E| = dNBA / dt
• Lenz's Law:
The direction of the induced EMF is such that its
effects oppose the change which causes it, or The
induced current in a closed loop must flow in
such a direction that its effects opposes the flux
change {or change} that produces it
• Explain how Lenz's Law is an example of the law
of conservation of energy:
{Illustrate with diagram of a coil “in a complete
circuit”, bar magnet held in hand of a person (=
external agent)}
• As the ext agent causes the magnet to approach
the coil, by Lenz‟s law, a current is induced in
such a direction that the coil repels the
approaching magnet.
• Consequently, work has to be done by the
external agent to overcome this opposition, and
• It is this work done which is the source of the
electrical energy {Not: induced emf}
• For a straight conductor “cutting across” a B-field:
E = B L v sin θ
• For a coil rotating in a B-field with angular frequency ω:
• E = N B A ω cos ω t, if φ = BAsinωt
& E = N B A ω sin ω t, if φ = BAcosωt
• {Whether φ = BAsinωt, or = BAcosωt, would depend
on the initial condition}
• The induced EMF is the negative of the gradient of the
φ ~ t graph {since E = -dNϕ / dt}
N.B. the graphs of E vs t & φ vs t , for the rotating coil have
a phase difference of 900.
 Eddy currents
• Eddy currents are currents
induced in metals moving in a
magnetic field or metals that
are exposed to a changing
magnetic field.
• To reduce eddy currents, the
solid cylinder could be replaced
with a stack of “coins” with
insulation between one another.
• The insulation between the
coins increases resistance and
reduces eddy current, thus
reducing friction or heating.
 Ac Theory

Peak current, I0 = 3 A
Period, T = 20 ms
Frequency, f = 1 / T = 50 Hz
Angular Frequency, ω = 2 π f = 314 rad s-1
Instantaneous current: the current at a particular instant.
I = I0 sin (ω t) or V = V0 sin (ω t)
Note: Both the period and amplitude of a sinusoidal
A.C should be constant.
• The root-mean-square (R.M.S.) value, Irms, of an A.C.
is the magnitude of the direct current that produces
the same average heating effect as the alternating
current in a given resistance whereas peak value is
the maximum current of an AC.
• Irms = Io / √2, Vrms = vo / √2, {for sinusoidal ac only}

Rectification: Full Wave using bridge circuit.

 Quantum Physics
• A photon is a discrete packet {or quantum} of
energy of an electromagnetic radiation/wave.
• Energy of a photon, E = h f = hc / λ where
h: Planck's constant
• Photoelectric effect refers to the emission of
electrons from a cold metal surface when
electromagnetic radiation of sufficiently high
frequency falls on it.
• 4 Major Observations:
1. No electrons are emitted if the frequency of the light is below a
minimum frequency {called the threshold frequency}, regardless of the
intensity of light
• Rate of electron emission {ie photoelectric current} is proportional to the
light intensity.
2. {Emitted electrons have a range of kinetic energy, ranging from
zero to a certain maximum value. Increasing the frequency
increases the kinetic energies of the emitted electrons and in
particular, increases the maximum kinetic energy.}
3. This maximum kinetic energy depends only on the frequency
and the metal used {ϕ}; the intensity has no effect on the kinetic
energy of the electrons.
4. Emission of electrons begins instantaneously {i.e. no time lag
between emission & illumination} even if the intensity is very low.

• NB: (1), (3) & (4) cannot be explained by Wave Theory of Light; instead
they provide evidence for the particulate/particle nature of
electromagnetic radiation.
 Explanation for how photoelectric effect provides
evidence for the particulate nature of e.m. radiation:
• According to the “Particle Theory of Light”, e.m.
radiation consists of a stream of particles / photons
discrete energy packets, each of energy hf. Also, no
more than one electron can absorb the energy of one
photon {“All-or- Nothing Law”.}
• Thus if the energy of a photon hf < the minimum
energy required for emission (ϕ), no emission can take
place no matter how intense the light may be. {Explains
observation (1)}
• This also explains why, {even at very low intensities}, as
long as hf > ϕ, emission takes place without a time
delay between illumination of the metal & ejection of
electrons {Explains observation (4)}.
• Threshold frequency is the minimum frequency of
the e.m. radiation required to eject an electron from
a metal surface. {This is because the electrons are
held back by the attractive forces of the positive
nuclei in the metal.}
• Work function of a metal is the minimum energy
required to eject an electron from a metal surface.
ϕ = h f0 = hcλ0
Maximum KE of electrons, ½ mev2max = eVs {in
magnitude} , Vs: stopping potential
hf = ϕ + eVs
• If only intensity doubles, the saturation current doubles (Vs: no
change)
• If only frequency increases, magnitude of Vs also increases, thus
no change to saturation current.
• Not every photon would collide with an electron; most are
reflected by the metal or miss hitting any electron.
On the way out to the metal surface, an electron may lose its kinetic
energy to ions and other electrons it encounters along the way. This
energy loss prevents it from overcoming the work function.
1 eV = (1.6 x 10-19C)x (1V) = 1.6 x 10-19J {Using W = QV}
 Wave-Particle Duality Concept
• Refers to the idea that light and matter {such as electrons}
have both wave & particle properties.
• The wavelength of an object is given by λ = h/p {p:
momentum of the particle.}
• Interference and diffraction provide evidence for the wave
nature of E.M. radiation.
• Photoelectric effect provides evidence for the particulate
nature of E.M. radiation.
• These evidences led to the concept of the wave-particle
duality of light.
• Electron diffraction provides evidence that matter / particles
have also a wave nature & thus, have a dual nature.
• de Broglie wavelength of a particle {“matter waves”}, λ = h/p
 Energy Levels of Isolated Atom:
• Are discrete {i.e. can only have certain energy values.}
• Difference between successive energy levels ΔE: decreases as
we move from ground state upwards.
• Explain how existence of electron energy levels in atoms gives
rise to line spectra:
• Energy levels are discrete.
• During a downward transition, a photon is emitted.
• Freq of photon f = (E1 – E2) / h
• Since E1 & E2 can only have discrete values, the freq are also
discrete and so a line {rather than a continuous} spectrum is
produced.
• The energy level of the ground state gives the ionization
energy, i.e. the energy needed to completely remove an
electron initially in the ground state from the atom {i.e.
to the energy level n = ∞, where E∞ =0}.
• Emission line spectrum: A series of discrete/separate
bright lines on a dark background, produced by electron
transitions within an atom from higher to lower energy
levels and emitting photons.
• Absorption line spectrum: A continuous bright spectrum
crossed by “dark” lines. It is produced when “white light”
passes through a cool gas. Atoms/electrons of the cool
gas absorb photons of certain frequencies and get
excited to higher energy levels which are then quickly re-
emitted in all directions.
 X-Ray
• Characteristic X-rays: produced when an electron is
knocked out of an inner shell of a target metal atom,
allowing another electron from a higher energy level to
drop down to fill the vacancy. The x-rays emitted have
specific wavelengths, determined by the discrete energy
levels which are characteristic of the target atom.
• Continuous X-ray Spectrum {Braking Radiation
(Bremsstrahlung)}: produced when electrons are
suddenly decelerated upon collision with atoms of the
metal target.
• Minimum λ of cont. spectrum λmin: given by
hc / λmin = eVa , Va: accelerating pd of x-ray tube
• Most of the α-particles passed through the metal foil were
deflected by very small angles.
• A very small proportion was deflected by more than 90°, some of
these approaching 180°
From these 2 observations it can be deduced that: the nucleus
occupies only a small proportion of the available space (ie the atom
is mostly empty space) & that it is positively charged since the
positively-charged alpha particles are repelled/deflected.
 Mass defect and Nuclear Binding Energy:
• Energy & Mass are Equivalent: E = mc2 → ΔE = (Δm)c2
• Nuclear Binding Energy:
Energy that must be supplied to completely separate
the nucleus into its individual nucleons/particles.
OR
• The energy released {not lost} when a nucleus is
formed from its constituent nucleons.
• B.E. per nucleon is a measure of the stability of the
nucleus.
• Mass Defect: The difference in mass between a nucleus and
the total mass of its individual nucleons
Zmp + (A - Z)mn - Mass of Nucleus
Thus, Binding Energy. = Mass Defect x c2
• In both nuclear fusion and fission, products have higher B.E.
per nucleon {due to shape of BE per nucleon-nucleon graph},
energy is released {not lost} and hence products are more
stable.
• Energy released = Total B.E. after reaction (products) - Total
B.E. before reaction (reactants)
• Nuclear fission: The disintegration of a heavy nucleus into 2
lighter nuclei. Typically, the fission fragments have
approximately the same mass and neutrons are emitted.
 Radioactivity
• Radioactivity is the spontaneous and random decay of an
unstable nucleus, with the emission of an alpha or beta
particle, and is usually accompanied by the emission of a
gamma ray photon.
• Spontaneous: The emission is not affected by factors outside
the nucleus
• Random: It cannot be predicted when the next emission will
occur {Evidence in fluctuation in count-rate}
• Decay law: dN/dt = -λN, where N= No. of undecayed {active}
nuclei at that instant;
• N = N0e-λt ; A = A0e-λt ;
Decay constant λ is defined as the probability of decay of a
nucleus per unit time {Or, the fraction of the total no. of
undecayed nuclei which will decay per unit time}
Activity is defined as the rate at which the nuclei are
disintegrating; A = dN/dt = λN
A0 = λ N0
• Half-life is defined as the average time taken for half the
number {not: mass or amount} of undecayed nuclei in the
sample to disintegrate,
or, the average time taken for the activity to be halved.
t½ = (ln2) / λ
Derive expression for the gain
Derive expression for gain
 :

Non-Inverting Amplifier
Derive expression for Vout
 Half adder

Can also be made from two NOR’s and an AN gate

Full adder
• Flip Flops. NAND and NOR