Soil & soil fertility

Africa Soil Health

Consortium
2014

Lecture 2: Introduction to soil and soil fertility

 Objectives
Gain knowlegde on the principles underpinning ISFM practises

• Introduction to soil
– Soil texture
– Porosity
– Mineral fraction
– Organic matter
• Introduction to nutrients
– Understanding the function of nutrients in plant growth
– Recognizing nutrient deficiencies
• Soil fertility
– Understanding the concept of soil fertility
– Introduction to soil fertility management
– Conservation agriculture & organic agriculture
– Minimizing losses of added nutrients
 Organic fraction:
- Soil organic matter (SOM)
Soil
- Key issue in soil fertility management

Mineral fraction: Pore space:

- Provides support to plant roots -space for roots and
- Slowly releases nutrients into the micro-organisms
soil solution -air for micro-organisms
-water storage
 Pore space
Porosity: volume of the soil occupied by air
and the soil solution

Porosity in
Well-drained moist soil: sufficient
moisture for plant growth and
sufficient aeration for proper root
function
Dry soil: all pores are filled with air
 drought stress
0 0.5 1.0 1.5 2.0 2.5 Water film
Flooded soil: pores are saturated mm Soil particle
with water  roots cannot breathe
Air space
and plants may die
Illustration adapted from Brady 1984, The nature and properties of soils, 9th edition.
 Mineral fraction

Sand
Silt
Clay

0 1 2 3 4 5
mm
Sand: 0.05 - 2.0 mm
Silt: 0.002 - 0.05 mm
Clay: < 0.002 mm

Illustration adapted from: www.iconn.org

 Mineral fraction

Clay % Silt %

Sand %
 The finger test
Mineral fraction
 Mineral fraction & Porosity
Pore Space in Sandy Soil vs. Clay Soil Soil texture affects
Sandy soil Clay soil
- Porosity
- Water holding capacity
- Nutrient retention and supply
- Drainage
- Nutrient leaching
Larger
Smaller
pores Infiltration Variations by Soil Texture
pores
Less total pore Greater total pore
volume volume
= =
Less porosity Greater porosity

Sand Silt Clay

Illustrations adapted from: http://wegc203116.uni-graz.at/meted/hydro/basic/Runoff/print_version/04-soilproperties.htm

 Mineral fraction & CEC
Cations: positively charged ions (e.g. K+, NH4+)
Cation exchange capacity (CEC): the maximum quantity of total cations that a
soil is capable of holding.
Clay fraction and SOM: Small particle size  Large negatively charged surface
area  More positions to hold cations  High CEC
Clay – Many positions Sand– Few positions
to hold cations H+ to hold cations

Ca2+
Mg2+ Sand
NH4+
Clay
Na+
K+
H+ H+ K+ H+

Illistration adapted from: http://www.spectrumanalytic.com/support/library/ff/CEC_BpH_and_percent_sat.htm

 Mineral fraction & CEC
CEC depends on
- Clay content
- Type of clay mineral
- SOM content
- Soil pH

Clay minerals differ in structure

• 1:1 clay minerals
– CEC varies with soil pH
– Found in most upland soils in SSA
• 2:1 clay minerals
– Large inherent CEC capacity
– Found in fertile lowland soils

Illustration adapted from Lory ‘Structure of Clays’ www.soilsurveys.org

 Organic fraction: SOM
SOM: plant and animal residues, in various stages of decompisition

Picture: http://www.guiadejardineria.com/jardineria/suelos-y-abonos/page/7/
 Organic fraction: SOM
- Contains essential plant nutrients
- Improves the soil’s Cation Exchange
Capacity
- Improves the soil’s water-holding capacity % Organic matter
(SOM can hold up to five times its own weight in Litter layer 1 2 3 4 5
water!)
- Improves water infiltration Top soil
- Buffers soil pH
- Binds with toxic elements in the soil Sub soil
- Improves soil structure by stimulating
activity of soil flora and fauna Organic matter
- Regulates the rates and amounts of
nutrients released for plant uptake

 SOM is a key issue in soil fertility

management!
Illustration adapted from: http://www.tekura.school.nz/departments/horticulture/ht106_p4.html
 Soil analysis
• Soil test: chemical method for estimating the
nutrient-supplying power of a soil
• Laboratory needs a representative composite
sample of 0.5 kg

• Be aware of heterogeneity
within fields when sampling!
 Guidelines for soil sampling
Take a representative sample!!!
1. Check the area to be sampled for notable features (e.g. slope, soil types,
vegetation, drainage).
2. Draw a sketch map, and identify and mark the location of sampling sites.
3. Take soil samples with a soil auger at the sampling depth (0-20 cm or 20-
40 cm).
4. Take 10-35 sub-samples per site, the number depending on the size and
heterogeneity of the field.
5. Combine the sub-samples to one composite per site and mix thoroughly.
6. If necessary, reduce sample weight by sub-dividing
7. Label the sample of soil properly.
8. Air-dry the sample and when dry, store it, properly labelled, in a plastic
bag or a glass bottle for further analyses.
 Nutrients
Macronutrients: at least 0.1% of plant dry matter per macronutrient
Nitrogen (N): Sulphur (S):
- Amino acid/Protein formation -Part of amino acids (protein formation)
- Photosynthesis -Synthesis of chlorophyll and some vitamins
-Required for N2-fixation by legumes
Phosphorus (P):
- Energy storage/transfer Magnesium (Mg):
- Root growth -Photosynthesis
- Crop maturity -Activates enzymes
- Straw strength -Carbohydrate transport
- Disease resistance
- Needed in large amounts during plant growth Calcium (Ca):
- Required for N2-fixation by legumes -Cell growth and walls
-Activates enzymes (protein formation and carbohydrate
Potassium (K): transfer)
- Plant turgor pressure maintenance -Essential in ‘calcicole’ plants (e.g. Groundnut) for seed
- Accumulation and transport of the products of production.
plant metabolism -Influences water movement, cell growth and division
- Disease resistance -Required for uptake of N and other minerals
- Required for N2-fixation by legumes
 Nutrients
Micronutrients: less than 0.1% of plant dry matter

Iron (Fe): Copper (Cu): Nickel (Ni):

- Photosyntheiss - Chlorophyll formation - Required for enzyme
- Respiration - Seed formation urease
- Protein synthesis
Manganese (Mn): Sodium (Na):
- Photosynthesis Molybdenum (Mo): - Water movement and
- Enzyme function - Protein synthesis and N uptake balance of minerals
- N2-fixation by legumes
Boron (B): Silicon (Si)
- Development/growth of new Chlorine (Cl): - Cell walls
cells - Movement of water and solutes - Protection against piercing
- Nutrient uptake by sucking insects
Zinc (Zn): - Photosynthesis - Leaf presentation
- Nucleic acid synthesis and - Early crop maturity - Heat and drought tolerance
enzyme activation - Disease control

Cobalt (Co):
- N2-fixation by legumes
Nutrient deficiency
Healthy

N-deficient

P-deficient

K-deficient

Diseased
Nutrient deficiencies
Nutrient deficiency: exercise
Nutrient deficiency: exercise

P-deficient K-deficient
- Stunted growth - Browning of
- Purplish colouring leaf edges
Nutrient uptake Nutrient
N
Plants take up
NO3-, NH4+
P H2PO4- , HPO42-
K K+
S SO42-
Mg Mg2+
Ca Ca2+
Fe Fe2+ and Fe3+
Mn Mn2+ and Mn3+
B (BO3)3-
Zn Zn2+
Cu Cu2+
Mo Mo42+
Cl Cl-
Co Co2+
Ni Ni2+
Na Na+
Si (SiO4)4-
 Nutrient availability
Readily available
- Nutrients from soluble fertilizers (e.g. KCL), readily mineralized SOM, nutrients held on
the edges of soil particles, and in the soil solution

Slowly available
- Nutrients in organic form, such as plant residues and organic manures (particularly with
a high C/N ratio), slowly soluble mineral fertilizers (e.g. Phosphate rock) and the SOM
fraction resistant to mineralization

Not available
- Nutrients contained in rocks, or adsorbed on soil particles
 Soil fertility
The capacity of soil to supply sufficient quantities and proportions of essential
chemical elements (nutrients) and water required for optimal growth of specified
plants as governed by the soil’s chemical, physical and biological attributes.

•Chemical elements for plant nutrition

•Adequate soil volume for plant root development
•Water and air for root development and growth
•Anchorage for the plant structure

Inherent Dynamic
Soil texture Soil organic matter (SOM)
Depth Nutrient- and water-holding capacity
Parent material Soil structure
 Soil fertility management practices
• Nutrient deficiencies prevent a good harvest Correcting nutrient
• Nutrient deficiencies can be expressed during plant growth deficiencies
Soil acidity correction
Breaking hardpans
• Use mineral (fertilizer) or organic (manure, crop residues) to
supply nutrients Water harvesting
Erosion control
• Use special fertilizer blends containing micronutrients or manure
Land preparation
in case of micronutrient deficiencies
Planting date
Healthy N- Spacing
deficient
Planting practices
P- Weeding
deficient Pest and disease
management
K-
deficient Intercropping
 Soil fertility management practices
Correcting nutrient
• Acidity is caused by deficiencies
– inherent soil properties Soil acidity correction
– acidity inducing management (e.g. long-term use of ammonium Breaking hardpans
based fertilizer)
Water harvesting
• Acid soils have high exchangeable Al (Al toxicity) Erosion control
Land preparation
Lime Planting date
• Increases pH Spacing
• Prevents Al and Mn toxicity in acidic soils (pH <5.5) Planting practices
• Supplies Ca Weeding
• Increases P and Mo availability Pest and disease
• Can increase microbiological activity management
Intercropping
• Apply lime to reduce exchangeable Al to +/- 15%
 Soil fertility management practices
Correcting nutrient
• Compaction  sub-surface soil barrier to root growth
deficiencies
• Break hardpans by ploughing or chisel ploughing to 30 cm depth Soil acidity correction
Breaking hardpans
Water harvesting
Erosion control
Porous soil allows
Surface crust Land preparation
good root
Planting date
development
Spacing
Planting practices
Sub-surface Weeding
barrier to
Pest and disease
roots management
Intercropping

Illustration adapted from: http://locallygerminated.wordpress.com/

 Soil fertility management practices
Correcting nutrient
• Capture more rainfall in areas that are prone to drought
deficiencies
– Harvesting additional water (e.g. Zaï)
Soil acidity correction
– Promoting infiltration by coversing the soil surface with mulch
Breaking hardpans
• Labour intensive Water harvesting
Erosion control
Land preparation
Planting date
Spacing
Planting practices
Weeding
Pest and disease
management
Intercropping

Zaï pits in Niger Mulching of bananas, western Uganda

Pictures: fao.org
 Soil fertility management practices
Correcting nutrient
• Prone to erosion: fields on steep slopes, or on gentle slopes deficiencies
with course-textured top soil Soil acidity correction
• Measures: live barriers (e.g. grass strips), teracces, surface Breaking hardpans
mulch Water harvesting
Erosion control
Land preparation
Planting date
Spacing
Planting practices
Weeding
Pest and disease
management
Intercropping
Bunds on sloping
land in Burundi
 Soil fertility management practices
Correcting nutrient
• Good seedbed preparation improves germination and deficiencies
reduces the chance for diseases Soil acidity correction
Breaking hardpans
Water harvesting
Erosion control
• A delay in planting date often affects yield negatively
Land preparation
• Planting time is important especially when the growing Planting date
season is short Spacing
Planting practices
Weeding
Pest and disease
management
Intercropping
 Soil fertility management practices
Correcting nutrient
• Crops compete for nutrients, water and light deficiencies
• Use a correct planting density, adjusted to crop type and the Soil acidity correction
environment. Consider the distance between rows, between Breaking hardpans
plants within rows and the number of plants per planting Water harvesting
hole. Erosion control
Land preparation
Crop Optimal rainfall Poor rainfall Planting date
Density Between Within Density Between Within Spacing
rows rows rows rows
Planting practices
‘000 cm cm ‘000 cm Cm
Plants/ha Plants/ha Weeding
Pest and disease
Beans (common) 200 50 10 133 50 15 management
Maize 44 75 30 37 90 30 Intercropping

Soybean 444 45 5 333 60 5

 Soil fertility management practices
Correcting nutrient
• Use viable seed (at least 80% germination)
deficiencies
• Plant seeds at the correct depth and insert cuttings at correct angle Soil acidity correction
• Plant more seeds than required for optimal plant density. Breaking hardpans
Water harvesting
• Weeds compete with crops for nutrients, water and light. Erosion control

• Timely removal of weeds is essential Land preparation

Planting date
• Weed before top dressing crop with fertilizer
Spacing
Planting practices
• Control pests and diseases at specific growth stages Weeding
Pest and disease
management
Intercropping

Delayed weeding reduces the

crop response to fertilizer
 Soil fertility management practices
Correcting nutrient
• Intercropping arrangements: take into account specific growth deficiencies
features and needs of individual crops to minimize intercrop Soil acidity correction
competition. Breaking hardpans
• Examples: delayed planting of one intercrop, adjusting spacing, Water harvesting
strip intercropping Erosion control
Land preparation
Maize-pigeonpea Maize-cassava
Planting date
Spacing
Planting practices
Weeding
Cassava-soybean Pest and disease
management
Intercropping
 Conservation agriculture (CA)
Basic principles
1. Soil disturbance is minimized by reduced or zero-tillage
2. Use of at least 30% soil cover (mulch or cover crops)
3. Use of crop rotations/associations
Advantages Pitfalls
- Rapid planting of large areas - Competing uses of crop residues needed
- Reduction of soil erosion for mulch
- Yields may decrease on the short-term
(the increase often comes on the longer-
term)
- Increased weed pressure caused by
reduced tillage
- Full CA requires a fundamental change in
the farming system. This may not be
practical or enomic for the farmer
- Possible decrease in agronomic efficiency
of fertilizer use
 Organic agriculture
Reliance on organic resources to provide nutrients to sustain soil
fertility and produce economic crop yields

However, mineral fertilizers are an essential component in sustainable

agriculture in SSA
• Soil nutrients stocks in large parts of SSA have already become depleted and
require replenishment
• Organic resources are not available in large enough quantities to replenish and
sustain nutrient stocks in the soil
• Large and economic responses to mineral fertilizer are obtained in many parts of
SSA
• Organic resources are bulky and their management is labour intensive

ISFM: use of mineral fertilizer in combination with organic resources. The

combination provides the greatest benefits!
 Minimizing losses of added nutrients
Losses of nutrients into the environment
• Depletion of nutrients in farming systems
• Eutrophication in case of excessive mineral fertilizer use (not common in
SSA)

Losses through
• Harvesting crops recycling
• Water and wind erosion
• Leaching
• Volatilization

Nitrogen is the most susceptible to losses

• Very mobile, can be lost through different ways
• NO3- is susceptible to leaching.
 Losses: Water and wind erosion
10 kg N/ha, 2 kg P/ha and 6 kg K/ha lost in low-input production
systems in SSA

Measures: grass strips, stone rows, mulch layer, soil preparation

methods (e.g. Zaï), improving SOM

Tied rigdes

Bunds on sloping
land in Burundi
 Losses: Leaching
• Problematic in high rainfall areas and coarse-textured
sandy soils (>35% sand)
• Mainly NO3- and exchangeable bases (K and Mg)
percolate beyond the reach of crop roots

Measures:
• Improving soil structure to promote good root
development for increased accessibility of nutrients
• Growing annual crops in association with trees, which
can ‘pump’ water and nutrients from deeper layers
 Losses: Volatilization
Denitrification of NO3-
• NO3-  N2O and N2 (gasses)
• Occurs under anaerobic conditions
Measures: improved soil drainage and maintain a good soil structure to avoid
anaerobic growing conditions

Volatilization of NH3 in alkaline soils (high pH)

Measures: deep placement of N-fertilizers

Volatilization of NH3 during storage and handling of manure

Measures: use anaerobic storage pits
 Summary Soil fertility management
options
Soil organic matter

CEC

Porosity Nutrients
Conservation
Texture agriculture - Functions
- Availability
Organic - Mobility
agriculture - Deficiencies
Mimimizing
losses of added
nutrients
- Erosion
- Leaching
- volatilization