PHYSICAL SCIENCE

PREPARED BY: MS. SHAIRA G. SALARDA

PHYSICAL SCIENCE

A branch of natural science that

studies non-living systems, in contrast
to life science.
COSMOLOGY
Is a branch of astronomy that
involves the origin and evolution of
the universe, from the Big Bang to
today and on into the future.
THREE COSMIC STAGES THROUGH WHICH SPECIFIC
GROUP OF ELEMENTS WERE FORMED

1.Big Bang Nucleosynthesis – formed light elements

( H, He, Li)
2.Stellar formation & evolution – formed the
element heavier than Be and Fe.
3.Stellar explosion or supernova, formed the
elements heavier than Fe.
 LIGHTEST ELEMENTS IN THE UNIVERSE
 Hydrogen (found in the sun and most of the stars)
 Helium (usually used to inflate balloons)
 Lithium (usually found in batteries)
 Beryllium (usually found in aircraft, components,
missiles and sattelites)
BIG BANG THEORY

 One of the acceptable theory on the origin of the

universe.
 A cosmic explosion.
 Nuclear fusion is a nuclear
reaction in which two or
more atomic nuclei collide at nearly
the speed of light and join to form
a new type of atomic nucleus. ...
Hydrogen and helium nuclei can then
be fused into heavier elements.
Gradually all the other elements up
to uranium must have
been formed in the stars.
HELIUM ATOM

 Atoms are very tiny. They could

not be seen before scanning
tunneling microscopes were
invented in 1981. However, the
idea of atoms goes back to
ancient Greece. That’s where this
brief history of the atom begins.
DEMOCRITUS INTRODUCES THE ATOM
 The history of the atom begins around 450
B.C. with a Greek philosopher named
Democritus . Democritus wondered what
would happen if you cut a piece of matter,
such as an apple, into smaller and smaller
pieces. He thought that a point would be
reached where matter could not be cut into
still smaller pieces. He called these
"uncuttable" pieces atomos. This is where the
modern term atom comes from.
 Democritus was an important philosopher. However, he was
less influential than the Greek philosopher Aristotle, who lived
about 100 years after Democritus. Aristotle rejected
Democritus’s idea of atoms. In fact, Aristotle thought the idea of
atoms was ridiculous. Unfortunately, Aristotle’s ideas were
accepted for more than 2000 years. During that time,
Democritus’s ideas were more or less forgotten.
J.J. THOMSON

 The next major advance in the

history of the atom was the
discovery of electrons. These were
the first subatomic particles to be
identified. They were discovered in
1897 by a British physicist named J. J.
Thomson.
THOMSON'S VACUUM TUBE EXPERIMENTS

 Thomson was
interested in electricity.
He did experiments in
which he passed an
electric current
through a vacuum
tube.
THOMSON'S PLUM PUDDING MODEL
 Thomson knew that atoms are neutral in
electric charge. So how could atoms
contain negative particles? Thomson
thought that the rest of the atom must
be positive to cancel out the negative
charge. He said that an atom is like a
plum pudding, which has plums scattered
through it. That’s why Thomson’s model
of the atom is called the plum pudding
model.
ERNEST RUTHERFORD
 A physicist from New
Zealand named
Ernest Rutherford
made the next major
discovery about
atoms. He discovered
the nucleus.
Rutherford's Gold Foil Experiments

In 1899, Rutherford discovered that

some elements give off positively
charged particles.
He named them alpha particles (α). In
1911, he used alpha particles to study
atoms.
He aimed a beam of alpha particles at a
very thin sheet of gold foil.
Outside the foil, he placed a screen of
material that glowed when alpha
particles struck it.
THE NUCLEUS AND ITS PARTICLES
 Based on his results, Rutherford concluded that all the positive
charge of an atom is concentrated in a small central area. He
called this area the nucleus. Rutherford later discovered that
the nucleus contains positively charged particles. He named the
positive particles protons. Rutherford also predicted the
existence of neutrons in the nucleus. However, he failed to find
them. One of his students, a physicist named James Chadwick,
went on to discover neutrons in 1932.
HENRY MOSELEY

 Henry Gwyn Jeffreys Moseley was an

English physicist, whose contribution
to the science of physics was the
justification from physical laws of the
previous empirical and chemical
concept of the atomic number.
NIELS BOHR
 Niels Bohr proposed a theory for the
hydrogen atom based on quantum
theory that energy is transferred only in
certain well defined quantities. Electrons
should move around the nucleus but only
in prescribed orbits. When jumping from
one orbit to another with lower energy,
a light quantum is emitted.
DALTON BRINGS BACK THE ATOM

 Around 1800, a British chemist named

John Dalton revived Democritus’s early
ideas about the atom.
 Matter are made up of very small
particles
 Atoms are neither created nor
destroyed.
 DALTON'S RESEARCH
 Dalton did many experiments that provided evidence for atoms.
For example, he studied the pressure of gases. He concluded that
gases must consist of tiny particles in constant motion. Dalton
also researched the properties of compounds. He showed that a
compound always consists of the same elements in the same
ratio. On the other hand, different compounds always consist of
different elements or ratios.
 ATOMS CONSIST OF THREE PARTS:
 Protons: Protons are the basis of atoms. While an atom can gain
or lose neutrons and electrons, its identity is tied to the number
of protons. The symbol for proton number is the capital letter Z.
 Neutrons: The number of neutrons in an atom is indicated by the
letter N. The atomic mass of an atom is the sum of its protons
and neutrons or Z + N. The strong nuclear force binds protons
and neutrons together to form the nucleus of an atom.
 Electrons: Electrons are much smaller than protons or neutrons
and orbit around them.
 Each electron has a negative electrical charge.
 Each proton has a positive electrical charge. The charge of a
proton and an electron are equal in magnitude, yet opposite in
sign. Electrons and protons are electrically attracted to each
other. Like charges (protons and protons, electrons and
electrons) repel each other.
 Each neutron is electrically neutral. In other words, neutrons do
not have a charge and are not electrically attracted to either
electrons or protons.
CONCEPT OF ATOMIC NUMBER LEADS TO THE SYNTHESIS
OF NEW ELEMENT TO THE LABORATORY

 Chemists in 19th century generally agreed about what

particles consists matter and agreed that matter
consisted of atoms. However, they knew nothing about
the structure of the atoms. The information about
known element gave them inspiration to arrange the
elements in a table.
 JOHN ALEXANDRIA REINA NEWLANDS
 In 1864, J.A.R Newlands, an English chemist
noticed that when the elements were arranged
according to increasing mass, every eight element
would exhibit similar properties, better known as
the law of octaves
 DMITRI IVANOVICH MENDELEEV
 A Russian chemist who developed the periodic
classification of the elements, Mendeleev found that,
when all the known chemical elements were arranged in
order of increasing atomic weight, the resulting table
displayed a recurring pattern, or periodicity, of
properties within groups of elements.
 JULIUS LOTHAR MEYER
 A German chemist who also worked on a periodic table,
Meyer’s
 table only included 28 elements,which were not
classified by atomic weight, but by valence
 HENRY GWYN JEFFREYS MOSELEY
 English physicist who experimentally demonstrated that the
major properties of an element are determined by the atomic
number, not by the atomic weight, and firmly established the
relationship between atomic number and the charge of the
atomic nucleus. When Moseley arranged the elements in the
periodic table by their number of protons rather than their
atomic weights, the flaws in the periodic table that had been
making scientists uncomfortable for decades simply disappeared
 The Periodic Law states that the physical
and chemical properties of the elements recur
in a systematic and predictable way when the
elements are arranged in order of increasing
atomic number.
 Predicting the Shapes of Molecules
 There is no direct relationship between the formula of a compound
and the shape of its molecules. The shapes of these molecules can
be predicted from their Lewis structures, however, with a model
developed about 30 years ago, known as the valence-shell
electron-pair repulsion (VSEPR) theory.
 The VSEPR theory assumes that each atom in a molecule will
achieve a geometry that minimizes the repulsion between electrons
in the valence shell of that atom. The five compounds shown in the
figure below can be used to demonstrate how the VSEPR theory
can be applied to simple molecules.
 There are only two places in the valence shell of the
central atom in BeF2 where electrons can be found.
Repulsion between these pairs of electrons can be
minimized by arranging them so that they point in
opposite directions. Thus, the VSEPR theory predicts that
BeF2 should be a linear molecule, with a 180o angle
between the two Be-F bonds.
 There are three places on the central atom in boron
trifluoride (BF3) where valence electrons can be found.
Repulsion between these electrons can be minimized by
arranging them toward the corners of an equilateral
triangle. The VSEPR theory therefore predicts a trigonal
planar geometry for the BF3 molecule, with a F-B-F
bond angle of 120o.
We described the two idealized extremes of chemical
bonding:
 ionic bonding—in which one or more electrons are
transferred completely from one atom to another, and
the resulting ions are held together by purely
electrostatic forces—and
 covalent bonding, in which electrons are
shared equally between two atoms.
Most compounds, however, have polar covalent bonds, which means
that electrons are shared unequally between the bonded atoms.
Compares the electron distribution in a polar covalent bond with
those in an ideally covalent and an ideally ionic bond.
Recall that a lowercase Greek delta (δδ) is used to indicate that a
bonded atom possesses a partial positive charge, indicated by
δ+δ+, or a partial negative charge, indicated by δ−δ−,
and a bond between two atoms that possess partial charges is a polar
bond.
 The Electron Distribution in a Nonpolar Covalent Bond, a Polar Covalent
Bond, and an Ionic Bond Using Lewis Electron Structures. In a purely
covalent bond (a), the bonding electrons are shared equally between the
atoms. In a purely ionic bond (c), an electron has been transferred
completely from one atom to the other. A polar covalent bond (b) is
intermediate between the two extremes: the bonding electrons are
shared unequally between the two atoms, and the electron distribution is
asymmetrical with the electron density being greater around the more
electronegative atom. Electron-rich (negatively charged) regions are
shown in blue; electron-poor (positively charged) regions are shown in
red.
 BOND POLARITY
The polarity of a bond—the extent to which it is polar—is determined largely
by the relative electronegativities of the bonded atoms.
Electronegativity (χχ) was defined as the ability of an atom in a molecule or an
ion to attract electrons to itself.
Thus there is a direct correlation between electronegativity and bond polarity.
A bond is nonpolar if the bonded atoms have equal electronegativities.
If the electronegativities of the bonded atoms are not equal, however, the
bond is polarized toward the more electronegative atom.
A bond in which the electronegativity of B (χBχB) is greater than the
electronegativity of A (χAχA), for example, is indicated with the partial negative
charge on the more electronegative atom:
lesselectronegativeAδ+−moreelectronegativeBδ−onumber