Senior High School

NOT

General Biology 1
Quarter 1 - Module 1
Cell: the basic unit of life

Department of Education ● Republic of the Philippines

1
General Biology 1- Grade 12
Alternative Delivery Mode
Quarter 1 - Module 1: Cell: the basic unit of life
First Edition, 2020

Republic Act 8293, section 176 states that: No copyright shall subsist in any work
of the Government of the Philippines. However, prior approval of the government agency or
office wherein the work is created shall be necessary for exploitation of such work for profit.
Such agency or office may, among other things, impose as a condition the payment of
royalty.

Borrowed materials (i.e., songs, stories, poems, pictures, photos, brand names,
trademarks, etc.) included in this book are owned by their respective copyright holders.
Every effort has been exerted to locate and seek permission to use these materials from
their respective copyright owners. The publisher and authors do not represent nor claim
ownership over them.

Published by the Department of Education – Division of Cagayan de Oro Schools

Division Superintendent: Dr. Cherry Mae L. Limbaco, CESO V

Development Team of the Module

Author: Romer T. Aguirre, Mark Richie S. Lasque

Reviewers: Jean S. Macasero, Shirley Merida, Duque Caguindangan, Eleanor Rollan,

Rosemarie Dullente, Marife Ramos, January Gay Valenzona, Mary Sieras, Arnold
Langam, Amelito Bucod

Illustrators and Layout Artists: Romer T. Aguirre, Mark Richie S. Lasque

Management Team
Chairperson: Cherry Mae L. Limbaco, Ph.D., CESO V
Schools Division Superintendent

Co-Chairperson: Alicia E. Anghay, Ph.D., CESE

Assistant Schools Division Superintendent

Members Lorebina C. Carrasco, OIC-CID Chief

Jean S. Macasero, EPS- Science
Joel D. Potane, LRMDS Manager
Lanie O. Signo, Librarian II
Gemma Pajayon, PDO II
Evelyn Q. Sumanda, School Head
Cely B. Labadan, School Head
Printed in the Philippines by
Department of Education – Division of Cagayan de Oro City
Office Address: Fr. William F. Masterson Ave Upper Balulang, Cagayan de Oro
Telefax: (08822)855-0048
E-mail Address: cagayandeoro.city@deped.gov.ph

2
 Module 1
Cell: the basic unit life
What This Module is About
This module demonstrates your understanding of the cell theory, cell structure
and functions, prokaryotic vs eukaryotic cells, cell types and modifications, cell cycle
and transport mechanisms which are the major topics of cellular biology. Learners
will be looking into the processes that are important to sustain life.

This module will help you explore the key concepts on topics and immersed
you in various activities and hands-on tasks that will help you answer the questions
pertaining to the cell theory, structure and functions, cell types and modifications, cell
cycle and transport mechanisms.
This module has seven (7) lessons:
 Lesson 1- Cell Theory
 Lesson 2- Cell Structure and Functions
 Lesson 3- Prokaryotic vs Eukaryotic Cells
 Lesson 4- Cell Types and Cell Modifications
 Lesson 5- Cell Cycle
 Lesson 6- Transport Mechanisms
 Lesson 7- Structures and Functions of Biological Molecules-Enzymes

What I Need to Know

After going through this module, you are expected to:
1. Explain the postulates of the Cell Theory (STEM_BIO11/12-Ia-c-1).

2. Describe the structure and function of major and subcellular organelles

(STEM_BIO11/12-Ia-c-2).

3. Distinguish prokaryotic and eukaryotic cells according to their distinguishing

features (STEM_BIO11/12-Ia-c-3).

4. Classify different cell types (of plant/animal tissues) and specify the functions of
each (STEM_BIO11/12-Ia-c-4).

5. Describe some cell modifications that lead to adaptation to carry out specialized
functions (STEM_BIO11/12-Ia-c-5).

6. Characterize the phases of the cell cycle and their control points
(STEM_BIO11/12-Id-f-6).

7. Describe the structural components of the cell membrane (STEM_BIO11/12-Ig-h-

11)

8. Relate the structure and composition of the cell membrane to its function
(STEM_BIO11/12-Ig-h-12)

10
9. Explain transport mechanisms in cells (diffusion osmosis, facilitated transport,
active transport) (STEM_BIO11/12-Ig-h-13).

10. Differentiate exocytosis and endocytosis (STEM_BIO11/12-Ig-h-14)

11. Describe the components of an enzyme (STEM_BIO11/12-Ii-j-17)

12. Explain oxidation/reduction reactions (STEM_BIO11/12-Ii-j-18)

13. Determine how factors such as pH, temperature, and substrate affect enzyme
activity (STEM_BIO11/12-Ii-j-19)

11
What I Know
MULTIPLE CHOICE:
Directions: Read and understand each item and choose the letter of the correct answer.
Write your answers on a separate sheet of paper.

__1. Which level of organization is the basic unit of life?

A. Cell
B. Tissue
C. Organ
D. System
__2. Which of the following is NOT a postulate of a unified cell theory?
A. All living things are composed of cells
B. Cells are the basic unit of life
C. All cells undergo complete development
D. All new cells arise from existing cells
__3. Who coined the term cell for the box like structure he observed when viewing cork
tissue?
A. Matthias Schleiden
B. Theodor Schwann
C. Rudolf Virchow
D. Robert Hooke
__4. In many cells, the structure that controls the cell activities is the _____________.
A. Cell Membrane
B. Organelle
C. Nucleolus
D. Nucleus
__5. Which part of the cell serves as venue for cellular respiration and is known as the
powerhouse of the cell?
A. Nucleolus
B. Chromosome
C. Mitochondrion
D. Nucleus
__6. Which type of tissue would be found in the epidermis and form the lining of internal
organs such as the intestines?
A. Nervous tissue
B. Muscular tissue
C. Connective tissue
D. Epithelial tissue
__7. The process by which the nucleus divides to produce two new nuclei that results in two
daughter cells that are genetically identical to each other and to the parental cell from which
they came.
A. Meiosis
B. Interphase
C. Mitosis
D. Cytokinesis
__8. A type of passive transport which relies on carrier proteins in order for the substances
to move down their concentration gradient.
A. Active transport
B. Facilitated diffusion
C. Osmosis
D. Sodium-potassium pump

__9. Which of the following is an example of passive transport which occurs when particles
move from an area of higher concentration to an area of lower concentration?
A. Phagocytosis
B. Pinocytosis

13
 C. Diffusion
D. Osmosis
__10. This process utilizes additional metabolic energy against the concentration gradient to
move molecules across the membrane from a region of lower concentration to a region of
higher concentration.
A. Active Transport
B. Passive Transport
C. Osmosis
D. Exocytosis

14
 Lesson The Cell Theory
1
What I Need to Know

Cells are the basic building blocks of all living things. The human body is
composed of trillions of cells. They provide structure for the body, take in nutrients
from food, convert those nutrients into energy, and carry out specialized functions.
Cells also contain the body’s hereditary material and can make copies of
themselves.

Cells have many parts, each with a different function. Some of these
parts, called organelles, are specialized structures that perform certain tasks within
the cell.

In this lesson, you are to explain the postulates of the cell theory. The
three postulates of the cell theory offer the basis on how an organism is considered
as a living thing.

Plant cell Animal cell

15
 What’s New

Guess What?

Direction: Complete the three basic components of the cell theory by arranging these
words in proper order. All your answers must be written on a separate sheet of
paper.
1. LIVING OF CELLS OR ONE ALL MORE THINGS
COMPOSED ARE

2. IS UNIT THE BASIC CELL LIFE OF THE

3. FROM ARISE CELLS PRE-EXISTING CELLS ALL

16
 What Is It

Prior to the invention of the very first microscope, everything that could not
be seen by the naked eye was unexplainable. In 1665, English physicist Robert
Hooke used of the first light microscopes to look at thin slices of plant tissues. One of
these, a slice of cork, especially caught his eye. Under the microscope, cork seemed
to be made of thousands of tiny chambers. Hooke called this chambers ―cells‖
because they reminded him of a monastery‘s tiny rooms, which were also known as
cells. Until 1676, Anton van Leeuwenhoek published his observations on tiny living
organisms which he named animalcules. It was believed that Leeuwenhoek was the
first to observe under his microscope the structure of a red blood cell of different
animals as well as a sperm cell.

One of the leading botanists in his time, Robert Brown in 1831 was able to
compare diverse kinds of plant specimens under the microscope. He markedly
indicated that there is a common thing about them-they are all composed of cells,
and inside the cell is a dark dense spot which he termed as the nucleus. A few years
later, German botanist Matthias Schleiden (1838) concluded that all plant parts are
made of cells. Theodor Schwann (1839), also a botanist and a close friend of
Schleiden, stated that all animal tissues are composed of cells, too. In 1858, Rudolf
Virchow concluded that all cells come from pre-existing cells.

Figure 1.1. Structure of cork using a microscope as seen by Robert Hooke (1665)

17
 The discoveries made by Hooke, Leeuwenhoek, Schleiden, Schwann,
Virchow, and others led to the formulation of the cell theory. The cell theory
describes the properties of all cells. This theory can be summed up into three basic
components: (1) all living things are composed of one or more cells; (2) the cell is the
basic unit of life; and (3) all cells arise from pre-existing cells.

Now, that you have an understanding of the history of the cell theory, answer
the activity that follows.

What’s More

A. The Discovery of Cell

Matthias Schleiden Robert Hooke Theodor Schwann

Anton van Leeuwenhoek Rudolf Virchow

Direction. Research on the ―Cell Theory‖ which tells about the discovery of cell.
Take note of the scientists and their respective works. Choose from the box which
scientist gave the following statements.

__________1. All cells come from pre-existing cells (1858).

__________2. All animals are made up of cells (1839).
__________3. All plants are made up of cells (1838).
__________4. Tiny living organisms are observed (1676).
__________5. Thousands of tiny empty chambers in cork are called cells (1665).

18
 What’s New

Reflection: Answer the following questions on a separate sheet of paper.

1. What is the cell theory and what does it state?

_________________________________________________________________
2. What do we call the basic generalizations that are accepted by modern science
about cell?
_________________________________________________________________
3. Among the scientists, who advanced the cell theory with his conclusion that cells
could only come from other cells?
_________________________________________________________________
4. What discovery is Van Leeuwenhoek noted for?
_________________________________________________________________
5. What caused scientists to discover the existence of cells?
_________________________________________________________________

What I Have Learned

Direction: The figure below indicates events that lead up to the cell theory. Complete
the table by filling in the blank spaces.
Date Scientist Discovery
1665 a. Observed the remains of
dead plant cells
b. Anton van Leeuwenhoek c.
1838 Matthias Schleiden d.
e. f. Stated that all animals are
made of cells
1858 g. h.

19
 What I Can Do

Performance Task:

Research on the theory of spontaneous generation or theory of abiogenesis by

Stanley Miller and Francesco Redi and Louis Pasteur‘s experiment. Compare the two
theories on the origin of life.

Enrichment Activity:

Watch a video through YouTube link below entitled “Theories on the Origin of Life”,
https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=2QLW7I_XBqo
https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=NNijmxsKGbc

20
 Lesson Cell Structure and Functions
2
What’s In

In lesson 1, you have learned about the cell theory and the discoveries made
by scientists.
In this next topic, you will learn on the cell structure and functions that carry
out basic life processes.

What I Need to Know

All living organisms are made up of one or many cells. The cells are the
building block of life just as atoms are the basic building blocks of all matter. Each
cell contains materials that carry out basic life processes. Cell structures can only be
observed under high magnification electron microscope and are separated internally
into numerous membranous compartments called organelles (little organs). These
organelles perform a variety of functions like production of proteins, storage of
important materials, harvesting energy, repairing cell parts, digestion of substances,
and maintaining the shape and structure of the cell.

In this lesson, you will describe the structure and function of major subcellular
organelles.

21
 What’s New

Direction: Write all the descriptions of cell organelles which are shown through the
illustration.

1. Control center, stores DNA

2. Center of the nucleus, produces ribosomes

3. Controls passage of organic molecules, ions, water,

oxygen and wastes into and out of the cell.

4. Provides structure to cell; gel-like fluid in which

organelles are found

5. ―Powerhouse of the cell‖, releases energy from

food

6. Small structures for protein synthesis

22
7. Modifies proteins and synthesizes lipids

8. Modifies, sorts, tags, packages and

Distributes lipids and proteins

9. Garbage disposal, digestion of macro-

molecules; recycling or worn out
organelles

10. Storage and transport; digestive function

in plant cells.

11. Site of photosynthesis, trap sunlight

to make food

12. Protection, structural support and

maintenance of cell shape

23
 What Is It

Cell Structure and Functions

Cells’ Structures Functions
1. Cell Membrane 1. Separates cell from external
environment; controls passage of
organic molecules, ions, water, oxygen
and wastes into and out of the cell
2. Cytoplasm 2. Provides structure to cell; site of
many metabolic reactions; medium in
which organelles are found
3. Nucleolus 3. Location of DNA
4. Nucleus 4. Cell organelle that houses DNA and
directs synthesis of ribosomes and
proteins
5. Ribosomes 5. Protein synthesis
6. Mitochondria 6. ATP production or cellular respiration
7. Peroxisomes 7. Oxidizes and breaks down fatty acids
and amino acids and detoxifies poisons
8. Vesicles and Vacuoles 8. Storage and transport; digestive
function in plant cells
9. Centrosome 9. Unspecified role in cell division in
animal cells; organizing center of
microtubules in animal cells
10. Lysosomes 10. Digestion of macromolecules;
recycling or worn out organelles
11. Cell wall 11. Protection, structural support and
maintenance of cell shape
12. Chloroplast 12. Photosynthesis
13. Endoplasmic reticulum 13. Modifies proteins and synthesizes
lipids
14. Golgi apparatus 14. Modifies, sorts, tags, packages and
distributes lipids and proteins
15. Cytoskeleton 15. Maintains cell‘s shape, secure
organelles on specific positions, allows
cytoplasm and vesicles to move within
the cell, and enables unicellular
organisms to move independently
16. Flagella 16. Cellular locomotion
17. Cilia 17. Cellular locomotion, movement of
particles along extracellular surface of
plasma membrane, and filtration

24
 What’s More

Direction: Below are drawing of plant and animal cells. Label the parts of the cell.
Write your answers on a separate sheet of paper according to letters and numbers.

PLANT AND ANIMAL CELL

What I Have Learned

25
Direction: Using a Venn Diagram or Tabular form show the difference between a
plant cell and animal cell.

Features Plant Cell Animal Cell

Cell Shape Rectangular (fixed shape) Round (irregular shape)
Cell Wall Present and is formed of Absent
cellulose
Cell Membrane Present and is covered by Present
the cell wall
Nucleus Present Present
Vacuole A large central vacuole One or more small
taking up 90% of the cell vacuoles
volume
Plastids Present Present
Chloroplast Present and make their Absent
own food
Endoplasmic Reticulum Present Present
Ribosomes Present Present
Mitichondria Present Present

What I Can Do

Direction: Construct a 3D model of a plant/animal cell using indigenous or recyclable

materials and label the parts.

26
 Lesson Prokaryotic vs Eukaryotic Cells
3
What’s In

In lesson 2, you have learned about the cell structure and function of major
and subcellular organelles.
In this next topic, you will learn on prokaryotic and eukaryotic cells according
to their distinguishing features.

What I Need to Know

Prokaryotes vs Eukaryotes
Most living things you know such as animals and plants are multicellular
organisms. Some living things are made up of only single cell. Single-celled or
unicellular organisms include the bacteria, some protists, and some fungi. Even
though composed of single cells, these organisms carry out all the functions
necessary for life. In different organisms, cells also vary in sizes, shapes, parts, and
functions. But they all have one thing in common: they make up all living things and
they are living.

What’s New

Prokaryote Eukaryote

Direction: In the following matrix, put a check in the box to show the organelle is
present in prokaryotic or eukaryotic cells, or both, and state in once sentence what
function of the organelle is.

27
 Organelle Prokaryote Eukaryote Function
Cell membrane
Cell wall
Nucleus
Mitochondria
chloroplast
Endoplasmic
reticulum (smooth)
Golgi apparatus
Lysosomes
Ribosomes
Endoplasmic
reticulum (rough)
Vacuole

What Is It

There are two kinds of organisms according to their cell structure, the
prokaryotes and eukaryotes. The difference between prokaryotic and eukaryotic
organisms is said to be the most important distinction among the groups of living
things. Prokaryotes are single-celled organisms that lack a membrane-bound
nucleus, mitochondria, and all other organelles. Its name comes from the Greek
words pro, which means ―before‖, and karyon, which means ―nut or kernel‖.
Eukaryotes are organisms with cells that contain membrane-bound nucleus and
other membrane-bound organelles. The nucleus of a eukaryotic cell contains the
genetic material (DNA), enclosed by a nuclear envelope. Other membrane-bound
organelles are mitochondria, Golgi apparatus, and chloroplast found in
photosynthetic organisms such as algae and plants. There are also unicellular
eukaryotes known as protozoa. All other eukaryotes are multicellular organisms such
as plants, animals, and fungi.

28
 What’s More

For the chart below, place a check in the box if the cell has that component.

Organelle Plant Animal Bacteria

Vacuole
Chloroplast
Ribosome
Mitochondria
DNA
Endoplasmic
Reticulum
Cell Wall
Golgi Appratus

What I Have Learned

Directions: On the lines below, write about what you‘ve learned by doing the
activities. Be as specific as possible and use COMPLETE SENTENCES.

1. Let me tell you some of the important things I‘ve learned about prokaryotic and
eukaryotic cells. First, I‘ll start with the difference between prokaryotic and eukaryotic
cells

_________________________________________________________________
_________________________________________________________________
_________________________________________________________________.

2. Next, I‘ll tell you examples of prokaryotic and eukaryotic cells

_________________________________________________________________
_________________________________________________________________
_________________________________________________________________.

3. Lastly, I now really know about and understand that prokaryotic and eukaryotic
cells

________________________________________________________________
________________________________________________________________
________________________________________________________________.

29
 What I Can Do

Directions: Draw a prokaryotic (bacteria) and eukaryotic cell on a separate sheet

of paper. Label the prominent structures and if possible note the name of the
species.

30
 Lesson Cell Types and Cell Modification
4
What’s In

In lesson 3, you have learned about the difference between prokaryotic and
eukaryotic cells according to their distinguishing features.
In this next topic, you will learn on the classification of different cell types and
cell modifications that lead to adaptation to carry out specialized functions.

What I Need to Know

There are certain characteristics that all living things exhibit, the
characteristics of life. Living things are made up of cells. They metabolize, grow and
develop, respond to stimulus, adapt to their environment and reproduce. Life on
Earth exhibits organization. The atom is smallest unit of matter, followed by
molecules, which are combinations of atoms. When these molecules are grouped
together, they ultimately form a cell. The cell is the basic unit of life. In multicellular,
organisms like plants and animals, cells are grouped as tissues to perform a specific
function. Different tissues can be grouped further and form organs. The organs form
organ systems that makes the function of the body more complex and efficient.
Organs system will then form the whole organisms. All living things exhibit
organization, whether they are unicellular or multicellular organisms.

What’s New

Direction: Arrange the words according to the levels of biological organization.

organ system organism tissue cell

31
 What Is It

There are hundreds of types of cells, but the four main types are epithelial
cells, connective tissue cells, muscle cells and nerve cells.

Epithelial Tissue—This type of tissue is commonly seen outside the body as

coverings or as linings of organs and cavities. Epithelial tissues are characterized by
closely-joined cells with tight junctions (i.e., a type of cell modification). Being tightly
packed, tight junctions serve as barriers for pathogens, mechanical injuries, and fluid
loss.
Cells that make up epithelial tissues can have distinct arrangements:

• cuboidal—for secretion
• simple columnar—brick-shaped cells; for secretion and active absorption
• simple squamous—plate-like cells; for exchange of material through diffusion
• stratified squamous—multilayered and regenerates quickly; for protection
• pseudo-stratified columnar—single layer of cells; may just look stacked because
of varying height; for lining of respiratory tract; usually lined with cilia (i.e., a type of
cell modification that sweeps the mucus).

Figure 1: Epithelial Tissue (Source: Reece JB, U. L. (2010). Campbell Biology 10th.
San Francisco (CA).)

32
Connective Tissue—These tissues are composed of the following:

BLOOD —made up of plasma (i.e., liquid extracellular matrix); contains water, salts,
and dissolved proteins; erythrocytes that carry oxygen (RBC), leukocytes for defense
(WBC), and platelets for blood clotting.

CONNECTIVE TISSUE PROPER (CTP)—made up of loose connective tissue that is

found in the skin and fibrous connective tissue that is made up of collagenous fibers
found in tendons and ligaments. Adipose tissues are also examples of loose
connective tissues that store fats which functions to insulate the body and store
energy.

CARTILAGE —characterized by collagenous fibers embedded in chondroitin sulfate.

Chondrocytes are the cells that secrete collagen and chondroitin sulfate. Cartilage
functions as cushion between bones.

BONE —mineralized connective tissue made by bone-forming cells called

osteoblasts which deposit collagen. The matrix of collagen is combined with calcium,
magnesium, and phosphate ions to make the bone hard. Blood vessels and nerves
are found at a central canal surrounded by concentric circles of osteons.

Figure 2: Connective Tissue (Source: Reece JB, U. L. (2010). Campbell Biology

10th. San Francisco (CA):.)

Muscle Tissue—These tissues are composed of long cells called muscle fibers that
allow the body to move voluntary or involuntary. Movement of muscles is a response
to signals coming from nerve cells. In vertebrates, these muscles can be categorized
into the following:
• skeletal—striated; voluntary movements
• cardiac—striated with intercalated disk for synchronized heart contraction;
involuntary
• smooth—not striated; involuntary

33
Figure 3: Muscle Tissue (Source: Reece JB, U. L. (2010). Campbell Biology 10th.
San Francisco (CA):.)

Nervous Tissue—These tissues are composed of nerve cells called neurons and
glial cells that function as support cells. These neurons sense stimuli and transmit
electrical signals throughout the animal body. Neurons connect to other neurons to
send signals. The dendrite is the part of the neuron that receives impulses from other
neurons while the axon is the part where the impulse is transmitted to other neurons.

Figure 4: Neurons and Glial Cells (Source: Reece JB, U. L. (2010). Campbell Biology
10th. San Francisco (CA):.)

34
 What’s More

Direction: Match each general tissue category to the appropriate feature. Write the
letter of your choice before each number.
A. Connective tissue
B. Epithelium
C. Muscular tissue
D. Nervous tissue

_____1. A type of tissue that would make up the majority of the brain and spinal
cord?
_____2. Found in the epidermis and form the lining of internal organs such as the
intestines
_____3. Form the ligaments, tendons, fat and bone
_____4. A type of tissue that makes up majority of the heart

What I Have Learned

Direction: Identify which type of connective tissue (A-C), epithelial tissue (D-F), and
muscle tissue (G-I) is being described.

A. _______________transport oxygen, carbon dioxide, nutrients and waste

through the body by travelling through the vessels called arteries and veins.
B. _______________is a type of dense connective tissue that connects
muscles to bones and connects bone to bone.
C. _______________is a type of connective tissue with one of the hardest
extracellular matrixes that forms a protective structure used for muscle attachment.
D. _______________found in respiratory tract (trachea), usually lined with
cilia.
E. _______________found in air sacs/alveoli of the lungs, capillaries.
F. _______________found in digestive tract for secretion and active
absorption
G. _______________muscles of the heart; involuntary movements.
H. _______________involuntary contractions of digestive tract like
esophagus, stomach and intestines.
I. ________________striated; voluntary movements like biceps and
abdominal muscles.

What I Can Do

Direction: Give at least 4 examples of the four major tissue types. Be as specific as
possible in giving examples.

35
 Lesson Cell Cycle
5
What’s In

In lesson 4, you have learned about the classification of different cell types
and some cell modifications that lead to adaptation to carry out specialized functions.
In this next topic, you will learn on the phases of cell cycle and their control
points, stages of mitosis/meiosis, comparison and their role in the cell division cycle.

What I Need to Know

One of the distinct characteristics of living things is being able to preserve

themselves. Cells need to undergo cycles as part of their growth and to repair or
replace damaged parts. Cell cycle enables a living thing to continue its existence by
multiplying itself in controlled and systematic processes. This lesson will enhance
your understanding on cell cycle. This will provide learners with the concepts on the
different stages of cell cycle and the two types of cell division: mitosis and meiosis
and explain their significance on an organism.

What’s New

Direction: Label the diagram below with the following labels:

Anaphase Metaphase
Cell division (M Phase) Prophase
Cytokinesis Telophase
G1 –cell grows Interphase
G2- prepares for mitosis Mitosis
S-DNA replication

36
 The Cell Cycle Coloring Worksheet

Then on the diagram, lightly color the G1 phase light GREEN, the S
phase dark BLUE, the G2 phase light BLUE, and the stages of mitosis VIOLET.
Color the arrows indicating all of the interphases in BLUE. Color the part of the arrow
indicating mitosis PURPLE and the part of the arrow indicating cytokinesis light
VIOLET.

What Is It

Cell Division—involves the distribution of identical genetic material or DNA to two

daughter cells. What is most remarkable is the fidelity with which the DNA is passed
along, without dilution or error, from one generation to the next. Cell Division
functions in reproduction, growth, and repair.

Core Concepts:
• All organisms consist of cells and arise from preexisting cells.
• Mitosis is the process by which new cells are generated.
• Meiosis is the process by which gametes are generated for reproduction.
• The Cell Cycle represents all phases in the life of a cell.
• DNA replication (S phase) must precede mitosis so that all daughter cells receive
the same complement of chromosomes as the parent cell.
• The gap phases separate mitosis from S phase. This is the time when molecular
signals mediate the switch in cellular activity.
• Mitosis involves the separation of copied chromosomes into separate cells.

37
• Unregulated cell division can lead to cancer.
• Cell cycle checkpoints normally ensure that DNA replication and mitosis occur only
when conditions are favorable and the process is working correctly.
• Mutations in genes that encode cell cycle proteins can lead to unregulated growth,
resulting in tumor formation and ultimately invasion of cancerous cells to other
organs.

The Cell Cycle control system is driven by a built-in clock that can be adjusted by
external stimuli (i.e., chemical messages).
Checkpoint—a critical control point in the Cell Cycle where ‗stop‘ and ‗go-ahead‘
signals can regulate the cell cycle.
• Animal cells have built-in ‗stop‘ signals that halt the cell cycles and checkpoints until
overridden by ‗go-ahead‘ signals. • Three major checkpoints are found in the G1, G2,
and M phases of the Cell Cycle.

The G1 Checkpoint—the Restriction Point

• The G1 checkpoint ensures that the cell is large enough to divide and that enough
nutrients are available to support the resulting daughter cells.
• If a cell receives a ‗go-ahead‘ signal at the G1 checkpoint, it will usually continue
with the Cell Cycle. • If the cell does not receive the ‗go-ahead‘ signal, it will exit the
Cell Cycle and switch to a non-dividing state called G0.
• Most cells in the human body are in the G0 phase.
The G2 Checkpoint—ensures that DNA replication in S phase has been
successfully completed.
The Metaphase Checkpoint—ensures that all of the chromosomes are attached to
the mitotic spindle by a kinetochore.
Kinase—a protein which activates or deactivates another protein by phosphorylating
them. Kinases give the ‗go-ahead‘ signals at the G1 and G2 checkpoints. The
kinases that drive these checkpoints must themselves be activated.
• The activating molecule is a cyclin, a protein that derives its name from its cyclically
fluctuating concentration in the cell. Because of this requirement, these kinases are
called cyclin-dependent kinases or CDKs.
• Cyclins accumulate during the G1, S, and G2 phases of the Cell Cycle.
• By the G2 checkpoint, enough cyclin is available to form MPF complexes
(aggregations of CDK and cyclin) which initiate mitosis.
• MPF functions by phosphorylating key proteins in the mitotic sequence.
• Later in mitosis, MPF switches itself off by initiating a process which leads to the
destruction of cyclin. • CDK, the non-cyclin part of MPF, persists in the cell as an
inactive form until it associates with new cyclin molecules synthesized during the
interphase of the next round of the Cell Cycle.

Discuss the stages of mitosis and meiosis.

Mitosis (apparent division)—is nuclear division; the process by which the nucleus
divides to produce two new nuclei. Mitosis results in two daughter cells that are
genetically identical to each other and to the parental cell from which they came.
Cytokinesis—is the division of the cytoplasm. Both mitosis and cytokinesis last for
around one to two hours.
Prophase—is the preparatory stage, during prophase, centrioles move toward
opposite sides of the nucleus.

• The initially indistinct chromosomes begin to condense into visible threads.

38
• Chromosomes first become visible during early prophase as long, thin, and
intertwined filaments but by late prophase, chromosomes are more compacted and
can be clearly discerned as much shorter and rod-like structures.
• As the chromosomes become more distinct, the nucleoli also become more distinct.
By the end of prophase, the nucleoli become less distinct, often disappearing
altogether.

Metaphase—is when chromosomes become arranged so that their centromeres

become aligned in one place, halfway between the two spindle poles. The long axes
of the chromosomes are 90 degrees to the spindle axis. The plane of alignment is
called the metaphase plate.

Anaphase—is initiated by the separation of sister chromatids at their junction point

at the centromere. The daughter chromosomes then move toward the poles.

Telophase—is when daughter chromosomes complete their migration to the poles.

The two sets of progeny chromosomes are assembled into two-groups at opposite
ends of the cell. The chromosomes uncoil and assume their extended form during
interphase. A nuclear membrane then forms around each chromosome group and
the spindle microtubules disappear. Soon, the nucleolus reforms.
Meiosis—reduces the amount of genetic information. While mitosis in diploid cells
produces daughter cells with a full diploid complement, meiosis produces haploid
gametes or spores with only one set of chromosomes. During sexual reproduction,
gametes combine in fertilization to reconstitute the diploid complement found in
parental cells. The process involves two successive divisions of a diploid nucleus.

First Meiotic Division The first meiotic division results in reducing the number of
chromosomes (reduction division). In most cases, the division is accompanied by
cytokinesis.

Prophase I—has been subdivided into five substages: leptonema, zygonema,

pachynema, diplonema, and diakinesis.
• Leptonema—Replicated chromosomes have coiled and are already visible. The
number of chromosomes present is the same as the number in the diploid cell.
• Zygonema—Homologue chromosomes begin to pair and twist around each other
in a highly specific manner. The pairing is called synapsis. And because the pair
consists of four chromatids it is referred to as bivalent tetrad.
• Pachynema—Chromosomes become much shorter and thicker. A form of physical
exchange between homologues takes place at specific regions. The process of
physical exchange of a chromosome region is called crossing-over. Through the
mechanism of crossing-over, the parts of the homologous chromosomes are
recombined (genetic recombination).
• Diplonema—The two pairs of sister chromatids begin to separate from each other.
It is at this point where crossing-over is shown to have taken place. The area of
contact between two non-sister chromatids, called chiasma, become evident.
• Diakinesis—The four chromatids of each tetrad are even more condensed and the
chiasma often terminalize or move down the chromatids to the ends. This delays the
separation of homologous chromosomes.

In addition, the nucleoli disappear, and the nuclear membrane begins to break down.

Metaphase I—The spindle apparatus is completely formed and the microtubules are
attached to the centromere regions of the homologues. The synapsed tetrads are

39
found aligned at the metaphase plate (the equatorial plane of the cell) instead of only
replicated chromosomes.

Anaphase I—Chromosomes in each tetrad separate and migrate toward the

opposite poles. The sister chromatids (dyads) remain attached at their respective
centromere regions.

Telophase I—The dyads complete their migration to the poles. New nuclear
membranes may form. In most species, cytokinesis follows, producing two daughter
cells. Each has a nucleus containing only one set of chromosomes (haploid level) in
a replicated form.

Second Meiotic Division The events in the second meiotic division are quite similar to
mitotic division. The difference lies, however, in the number of chromosomes that
each daughter cell receives. While the original chromosome number is maintained in
mitosis, the number is reduced to half in meiosis.

Prophase II—The dyads contract.

Metaphase II—The centromeres are directed to the equatorial plate and then divide.
Anaphase II—The sister chromatids (monads) move away from each other and
migrate to the opposite poles of the spindle fiber.
Telophase II—The monads are at the poles, forming two groups of chromosomes. A
nuclear membrane forms around each set of chromosomes and cytokinesis follows.
The chromosomes uncoil and extend.

Cytokinesis—The telophase stage of mitosis is accompanied by cytokinesis. The

two nuclei are compartmentalized into separate daughter cells and complete the
mitotic cell division process. In animal cells, cytokinesis occurs by the formation of a
constriction in the middle of the cell until two daughter cells are formed. The
constriction is often called cleavage, or cell furrow. However, in most plant cells this
constriction is not evident. Instead, a new cell membrane and cell wall are
assembled between the two nuclei to form a cell plate. Each side of the cell plate is
coated with a cell wall that eventually forms the two progeny cells.

Table 1: Comparison of Mitosis and Meiosis

(Source:http://courses.washington.edu/bot113/spring/WebReadings/PdfReadings/TA
BLE_COMPARING_MITOSIS_AND.pdf)

40
Disorders and Diseases

• incorrect DNA copy (e.g., cancer)

• chromosomes are attached to string-like spindles and begin to move to the middle
of the cell (e.g., Down Syndrome, Alzheimer‘s, and Leukemia)

Other chromosome abnormalities:

• arise from errors in meiosis, usually meiosis I;
• occur more often during egg formation (90% of the time) than during sperm
formation;
• become more frequent as a woman ages.
• Aneuploidy—is the gain or loss of whole chromosomes. It is the most common
chromosome abnormality. It is caused by non-disjunction, the failure of
chromosomes to correctly separate:
• homologues during meiosis I or
• sister chromatids during meiosis II

What’s More

Direction: Complete the chart by noting what occurs in each phase of the cell cycle.

Gap O (GO)
Gap 1 (G1)
Interphase
S Phase

Gap 2 (G2)

Prophase
Mitosis or M
Phase Metaphase

Anaphase

Telophase

Cytokinesis C

41
 What I Have Learned

Direction: The diagram below shows cells in various phases of the cell cycle. Note
the cells are not arranged in the order in which the cell cycle occurs. Use the
diagram to answer questions 1-6. Write you answer in CAPITAL letters.

1. ________Interphase (G2) 4. _________Metaphase

2. ________Prophase 5. _________Anaphase

3. ________Prometaphase 6. _________Telophase & Cytokinesis

What I Can Do

Direction: Gene mutations in a cell can result in uncontrolled cell division, called
cancer. Exposure of cells to certain chemicals and radiation increases mutations
and thus increases the chance of cancer. Research on the causes of cancers and
disorders/diseases that result from the malfunction of the cell during the cell cycle
and answer the following questions.

1. Define cancer
_______________________________________________________________
_______________________________________________________________
_______________________________________________________________.

2. What are the causes of cancer?

_______________________________________________________________
_______________________________________________________________
_______________________________________________________________.

42
 Summary

The importance of cell cycle is very evident that the growth and
sustainability of multicellular organisms depend on this process. Cells that are
damaged and lost will be replenished when cells divide. Errors in mitosis lead to an
incorrect copy of the DNA which may produce deadly functional consequences
depending on the error. The positive correlation with the malfunction of these
processes to the onset of major diseases such as cancer, stroke, atherosclerosis,
inflammation, and some neurodegenerative disorders in increasingly proven in
various studies.

43
 Assessment: (Post-Test)

Direction: Select the letter of your choice. Write it in CAPITAL letters. Your answers should be
written on a separate sheet of paper.

__1. Which level of organization is the basic unit of life?

A. Cell
B. Tissue
C. Organ
D. System
__2. Which of the following is NOT a postulate of a unified cell theory?
A. All living things are composed of cells
B. Cells are the basic unit of life
C. All cells undergo complete development
D. All new cells arise from existing cells
__3. Who coined the term cell for the box like structure he observed when viewing cork tissue?
A. Matthias Schleiden
B. Theodor Schwann
C. Rudolf Virchow
D. Robert Hooke
__4. In many cells, the structure that controls the cell activities is the _____________.
A. Cell Membrane
B. Organelle
C. Nucleolus
D. Nucleus
__5. Which part of the cell serves as venue for cellular respiration and is known as the powerhouse of
the cell?
A. Nucleolus
B. Chromosome
C. Mitochondrion
D. Nucleus
__6. Which type of tissue would be found in the epidermis and form the lining of internal organs such
as the intestines?
A. Nervous tissue
B. Muscular tissue
C. Connective tissue
D. Epithelial tissue
__7. The process by which the nucleus divides to produce two new nuclei that results in two
daughter cells that are genetically identical to each other and to the parental cell from which
they came.
A. Meiosis
B. Interphase
C. Mitosis
D. Cytokinesis
__8. A type of passive transport which relies on carrier proteins in order for the substances to move
down their concentration gradient.
A. Active transport
B. Facilitated diffusion
C. Osmosis
D. Sodium-potassium pump

44
__9. Which of the following is an example of passive transport which occurs when particles move
from an area of higher concentration to an area of lower concentration?
A. Phagocytosis
B. Pinocytosis
C. Diffusion
D. Osmosis
__10. This process utilizes additional metabolic energy against the concentration gradient to move
molecules across the membrane from a region of lower concentration to a region of higher
concentration.
A. Active Transport
B. Passive Transport
C. Osmosis
D. Exocytosis
For inquiries or feedback, please write or call:

Department of Education – Division of Cagayan de Oro City

Office Address: Fr. William F. Masterson Ave Upper Balulang
Cagayan de Oro
Telephone Nos.: (08822)855-0048
E-mail Address: cagayandeoro.city@deped.gov.ph

116