CE 595:

Finite Elements in Elasticity

Instructors: Amit Varma, Ph.D.

Timothy M. Whalen, Ph.D.

School of Civil Engineering Spring 2007

Section 1: Review of Elasticity

1. Stress & Strain

2. Constitutive Theory
3. Energy Methods

Review of Elasticity -2-

Section 1.1: Stress and Strain

 Stress at a point Q :

D Fx D Fy D Fz
s x = lim ;t xy = lim ;t xz = lim .
D A�0 D A D A�0 D A D A�0 D A

sx �
�
� �
sy �
�
s x t xy
� t xz �
� � sz �
�
Stress matrix [ σ (Q) ] = �
t xy s y ; Stress vector ( σ(Q) ) = � �
t yz � .
t
�xy �
�
t xz t yz sz �
� � �
t yz �
�
� �
�
t
�xz �

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1.1: Stress and Strain (cont.)
 Stresses must satisfy equilibrium equations in pointwise
manner:

“Strong Form”

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1.1: Stress and Strain (cont.)

 Stresses act on inclined surfaces as follows:

�s x t xy t xz � �nx �
� �
� �
Snˆ ( Q ) = � t xy s y t yz � �n y �
�t xz t yz s z � �n �
� �z �
�
= [ σ(Q) ] ( nˆ ) .

s = Snˆ ( Q ) gnˆ ; t = Snˆ ( Q ) - s 2 .

2

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1.1: Stress and Strain (cont.)
 Strain at a pt. Q related to displacements :

Q : ( x, y , z ) � Q �
: ( x� ,z )
, y ��
Displacement functions
u ( x, y , z ) , v ( x, y , z ) , w ( x, y , z )
defined by:
= x + u ( x, y , z ) ;
x�
= y + v ( x, y , z ) ;
y�
= z + w ( x, y , z ) .
z�

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1.1: Stress and Strain (cont.)

 Normal strain relates to changes in size :

D - QD Q��
Q�� D - dx
ex � = ;
QD dx
D = xD�- xQ�= x + dx + u ( x + dx, y ) - �
Q�� x + u ( x, y ) �
� �=dx + u ( x + dx, y ) - u ( x, y ) .
u ( x + dx, y ) - u ( x, y ) �u �v � w
\e x = � ( Q ) . Also, e y = ( Q ) ; e z = ( Q) .
dx �x �y � z

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 1.1: Stress and Strain (cont.)

 Shearing strain relates to changes in angle :

v ( x + dx, y ) u ( x, y + dy ) �
v �u �
w �u �
w �v
g xy = a + b = + = ( Q ) + ( Q ) .g xz = ( Q ) + ( Q ) .g yz = ( Q ) + ( Q ) .
dx dy �
x �y �x �z �y �z
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1.1: Stress and Strain (cont.)

 Sometimes FEA programs use elasticity

shearing strains :
e xy = 12 g xy . e xz = 12 g xz . e yz = 12 g yz .
 Strains must satisfy 6 compatibility equations:
�g xy
2
�e x �e y 2 2
E.g.: = 2 + 2 .
��
x y �y �x

(usually automatic for most formulations)

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Section 1.2 : Constitutive Theory
 For linear elastic materials, stresses and strains are
related by the Generalized Hooke’s Law :
( σ ) = [ C] { ( ε ) - ( ε ) o } + ( σ ) o .
sx �
� ex �
� �c11 c12 c13 c14 c15 c16 �
�
s � �
e � �c12 c22 c23 c24 c25 c26 �
�y� �y � � �
sz �
�
� � ez �
�
� � �c13 c23 c33 c34 c35 c36 �
( σ ) = � �; ( ε ) = � �;[ C] = � �Elasticity matrix;
t xy �
� g xy �
� �c14 c24 c34 c44 c45 c46 �
�
t yz � �
g yz � �c c25 c35 c45 c55 c56 �
� � � � �15 �
t xz �
�
��� g xz �
� �c16 c26 c36 c46 c56 c66 �
( σ ) o = residual stresses; ( ε ) o = residual strains.

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1.2 : Constitutive Theory (cont.)
 For isotropic linear elastic materials, elasticity matrix
takes special form:

1 -n
� n n 0 0 0 �
�n 1 -n n 0 0 0 �
� �
E �n n 1 -n 0 0 0 �
[ C] = � .
�
2(
( 1 - 2n ) ( 1 + n ) �0 0 0 1
1 - 2n ) 0 0 �
2(
�0 0 0 0 1
1 - 2n ) 0 �
� �
2(
�0 0 0 0 0 1
1 - 2n ) �
E = Young's modulus, n = Poisson's ratio.

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 1.2 : Constitutive Theory (cont.)
 Special cases of GHL:
– Plane Stress : all “out-of-plane” stresses assumed zero.
�sx � �e x � 1 n
� 0 �
� � � � E � �
( σ ) = �s y �; ( ε ) = �e y �; [ C] = n 1
2 �
0 � .
1 - n
2(
�
�t xy �
�
�
�g xy �
�
�
0 0
�
1
1 -n ) �
�
n
Note: e z = -
1 -n
( e x + e y ) required.
– Plane Strain : all “out-of-plane” strains assumed zero.
� n �
� 1 - 0 �
�sx � �e x � 1 -n
� �
� � � � -1 1 -n 2 � n
( σ ) = �s y �; ( ε ) = �e y �; [ C] = - 1 0 �.
� E � 1 -n �
�t xy �
�
�
�g xy �
� � �
� 0 2 �
0
�
� 1 -n �
�
Note: s z = n ( s x + s y ) required.

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 1.2 : Constitutive Theory (cont.)
 Other constitutive relations:
– Orthotropic : material has “less” symmetry than isotropic case.
FRP, wood, reinforced concrete, …

– Viscoelastic : stresses in material depend on both strain and strain rate.

Asphalt, soils, concrete (creep), …

– Nonlinear : stresses not proportional to strains.

Elastomers, ductile yielding, cracking, …

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 1.2 : Constitutive Theory (cont.)

 Strain Energy
– Energy stored in an elastic material during deformation; can be
recovered completely.
Work done during 1 � 1�
:
dW = ( F + dF ) ( dL ) �FdL.
F = s x Ao ; dL = d e x Lo .
\ dW = ( s x d e x ) ( Ao Lo ) .
e final
� W = ( Ao Lo ) �s x d e x .
eo

If all external work is stored,

e final
U = W = ( Vo ) �s x d e x .
eo

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 1.2 : Constitutive Theory (cont.)

 Strain Energy Density : strain energy per unit

volume.
e final
U = U Vo = �s x d e x .
eo

�U = �UdV
Volume

 In general,
e final e final e final g final g final g final
U= �s x d e x + �s y d e y + �s z d e z + �t xy d g xy + �t yz d g yz + �t xz d g xz .
eo eo eo go go go
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 Section 1.3 : Energy Methods
 Energy methods are techniques for satisfying equilibrium
or compatibility on a global level rather than pointwise.

 Two general types can be identified:

– Methods that assume equilibrium and enforce displacement
compatibility.
(Virtual force principle, complementary strain energy theorem, …)
– Methods that assume displacement compatibility and enforce
equilibrium.
(Virtual displacement principle, Castigliano’s 1st theorem, …)
Most important for FEA!

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1.3 : Energy Methods (cont.)
 Principle of Virtual Displacements (Elastic case):
(aka Principle of Virtual Work, Principle of Minimum Potential Energy)

Elastic body under the action of body force b

and surface stresses T.
 Apply an admissible virtual displacement d u
– Infinitesimal in size and speed
– Consistent with constraints
– Has appropriate continuity
– Otherwise arbitrary
 PVD states that d We = d Wi for any admissible d u
is equivalent to static equilibrium.
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 1.3 : Energy Methods (cont.)
 External and Internal Work:
d We = �bδu
� dV + � � dA = �
T δu � dV + �
b δu σ[ ]n( ˆ ) δu
� dA.
volume surface volume surface

d Wi = d U = �U ( δu ) dV
volume

= �{ s
volume
x de x + s y �
� de y + s z �
de z + t xy �
dg xy + t yz � dg xz } dV .
dg yz + t xz �

 So, PVD for an elastic body takes the form

�bδu
� dV + �σ[ ]n( ˆ ) δu
� dA = �σ( ) �
( ) dV .
δε
volume surface volume

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 1.3 : Energy Methods (cont.)
 Recall: Integration by Parts
b b
f ( x ) g�
( x ) dx = �
�f ( x ) g ( x ) � g ( x) f �
( x ) dx.
b
�a
�- � a
a

 In 3D, the corresponding rule is:

�
g �f
�f ( x, y, z )
volume
�x
( x , y , z ) dV = �
surface
f ( x , y , z ) (
g x , y , z ) x
n dA - �
volume
g ( x , y , z ) ( x, y, z ) dV .
�x

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 1.3 : Energy Methods (cont.)
 Take a closer look at internal work:
�( d u ) � x � s
�
de x = � �{ s x de
� x } dV = �( s x d
� u ) nx dA - d
�� �x �dV .
� u �
�
x volume surface volume

�( d v ) � � sy �
de y =
�
y
� �{ s
volume
de y } dV =
y � �( s
surface
d v ) n y dA -
y � �
volume
d
�
�
v �
�y
�dV

�( d w ) � sz �
�
de z =
�
z
� �{ s
volume
z de z } dV =
� �( s
surface
z d w ) nz dA -
� d w � �dV
��
�
volume �
z
�( d v ) �( d u )
dg xy = + �
�
x �
y
� � t xy � � � t xy �
�{ t
volume
xy dg xy } dV =
� �( t
surface
xy d v ) nx dA -
� � d
�
volume ��
v �
�x
�dV + �( t
surface
xy d u ) n y dA -
� �
volume
d
� u �
�y
�dV .

� � t yz � � � t yz �
�{ t
volume
dg yz } dV =
yz � �( t
surface
d w ) n y dA -
yz � � d
�
volume ��
w �
�y
�dV + �( t
surface
d v ) nz dA -
yz � �
volume
d
� v �
�z
�dV

� xz � t
� � xz � t
�
�{ t xz dg
� xz } dV = �( t xz d
� w ) n x dA - d
�� �x �dV
� w � + �( t xz d
� u ) n z dA - d
�� �z �dV
� u �
volume surface volume surface volume

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 1.3 : Energy Methods (cont.)
��sx � t xy �t xz �
� + + �
� �x �y �z ��d u �
��
s x t xy t xz � �nx � ��d u �
�� �� � �� � ��t xy �sy � t yz �� �
\d Wi = ��� t xy s y t yz � � ny � �d v �
�� dA - �� + + �g�d v �
dV
surface ��
t t s ��n � ��d w � volume �� x �y �z �� �
d w�
�z � � � ��
4�
z� ��
14� t
xz yz
4 4 4 44 2 4 4 4 4 4 4 43 t � s
�
� xz + yz + z �
� [ σ ] ( ˆ)�
n δu d A �� x �y �z �
surface �
1 4 4 4 2 4 4 43�
A

\d Wi = d We � �[ σ ] ( nˆ ) �δudA - �A �δudV = �b �δudV + �[ σ ] ( nˆ ) �δudA

surface volume volume surface

� �{ A + bδu
volume
} � dV 0= for an arbitrarδu
y
• By reversing the steps, can show that
�A+b =0� the equilibrium equations imply d Wi = d We
• d Wi = d We is called the weak form of
static equilibrium.

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1.3 : Energy Methods (cont.)
 Rayleigh-Ritz Method : a specific way of implementing
the Principle of Virtual Displacements.
– Define total potential energy P = Wi - We; PVD is then stated
as dP = d Wi - d We = 0
– Assume you can approximate the displacement functions as a
sum of known functions with unknown coefficients.
– Write everything in PVD in terms of virtual displacements and
real displacements. (Note: stresses are real, not virtual!)
– Using algebra, rewrite PVD in the form
n

�( unknown virtual coefficient ) * ( equation involving real coefficients )

i=1
i i
=0
– Each unknown virtual coefficient generates one equation to
solve for unknown real coefficients.

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1.3 : Energy Methods (cont.)
 Rayleigh-Ritz Method: Example

Given: An axial bar has a length L, constant modulus of elasticity E, and a

variable cross-sectional area given by the function A( x) = Ao ( 1 + b sin ( L ) ) ,
px

where β is a known parameter. Axial forces F1 and F2 act at x = 0 and x=

L, respectively, and the corresponding displacements are u1 and u2 .

Required: Using the Rayleigh-Ritz method and the assumed displacement

function u ( x ) = u1 ( 1 - x
L ) + u ( x
)
2 L , determine the equation that relates the

axial forces to the axial displacements for this element.

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 1.3 : Energy Methods (cont.)

Solution :
1) Treat u1 and u2 as unknown parameters. Thus, the virtual
displacement is given by
d u ( x) = d u1 ( 1 - Lx ) + d u2 ( x
L )
2) Calculate internal and external work:

d We = F1d u1 + F2d u2 (no body force terms).

d Wi = �s xde x dV = �s xde x A( x)dx.
bar bar

�u
ex = = u1 * ( - L1 ) + u2 * ( + L1 ) = u L-u . 2 1

�x
� de x = d u L-d u and s x = E * ( u L-u ) .
2 1 2 1

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 1.3 : Energy Methods (cont.)

(Cont) :
2) \d Wi = �{ E * ( L ) * L * Ao { 1 + b sin ( pLx ) } } dx
x= L
u -u d u -d u 2 1 2 1

x =0

= E * ( u L-u ) * d u L-d u * Ao * { L + 2pb L }

2 1 2 1

� d Wi = d u2 * EAo ( u L-u{ 2 1
)( p )
1 + 2b
- d u}
1 * EA {
o( L
u -u 2 1
) ( 1+ )} .
2b
p

3) Equate internal and external work:

F1d u1 + F2d u2 = d u2 * EAo ( u L-u { 2 1
)( p )
1 + 2b
-}d u1 * {
EAo( L
u -u 2 1
) ( 1+ )} .
2b
p

For d u1 : F1 = EAo ( u -Lu 1 2

) (1+ ) �� EA
2b
�1 -1�
�u1 � �F1 �
( 1+ ) �
p
��
o 2b
�
� �=� � .
For d u2 : F2 = EAo ( u L-u ) (1+ ) �
p
2 1 L 2b
�-1 1��u2 � �F2 �
� p

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