The Evolution of Earth

 Rocks and Minerals

 Exogenic Processes
 Endogenic Processes
 EARTH MATERIALS
 MINERALS
 ROCKS
 MINERALS
• naturally occurring inorganic solids
• minerals have crystalline structure and definite
composition
• has thousands of minerals identified on Earth (e.g.
salt)
Physical Properties of Minerals
COLOR
• Usually the property used to identify minerals easily.
• It is a result of the way minerals absorb light.
• This property may not be used in identifying
translucent to transparent minerals due to the presence
of trace amounts of other minerals in them.
• Least reliable means of identifying minerals.
 Mineral Mineral Color

Augite Brown, green, black/purple

Biotite Black, brown/green

Calcite Pearlescent and pale colors

Dolomite Colorless, pale pink,

brown/gray
Feldspar Yellow, white, pink, brown/gray

Hematite Metallic gray/black

Hornblende Green, yellow, brown/black

 Augite Biotite Calcite

Dolomite Feldspar Hematite

Hornblende Limomite Sulfur
 Physical Properties of Minerals
STREAK
• Color of the mineral in the
powder form
• In cases when the color of
minerals appear different because
of trace particles inside them,
scientists would pulverize them to
get their true color.
Physical Properties of Minerals
HARDNESS
• Refers to the measure of the mineral’s resistance
to scratching
• Moh’s scale is used to measure the hardness of
minerals ( German mineralogist, Frederick Mohs
1812)
• The harder the mineral, the greater is its resistance
to scratching
Field Hardness Guide
Scale Description
1 Can be rubbed off on a finger
2 Can be scratched with a finger nail
3 Can be scratched with a coin
4 Can be scratched with difficulty with a
knife
5 Can be scratched with a knife blade
6 Can be scratched with a piece of glass
7 Can be scratched with a piece of quartz
8-10 Minerals too hard to be included In this
scale
Physical Properties of Minerals
CLEAVAGE and FRACTURE
• Used to describe how minerals break into pieces
• Minerals are crystalline structures and breakage may
take place in weak parts of the structures.
CLEAVAGE
• The breakage along the crystalline structure where a
mineral is likely to break smoothly.
 Physical Properties of Minerals
Crystalline Structure or crystal lattice
• Tells how a mineral’s crystals ae arrange
• HAND LENS is a necessary tool in checking for crystalline
structure.
Crystal solid - forms a regular repeating three-dimensional
crystal lattice
Amorphous solid – forms aggregates that have no particular
order or arrangement
 Physical Properties of Minerals
Transparency or diaphaneity
• Indicates the extent of light that can pass through the mineral.
Hence, the degree of transparency may depend on the thickness of
the mineral.
 Physical Properties of Minerals

MAGNETISM
• Indicates the ability of a mineral to attract or
repel other minerals
 Physical Properties of Minerals
TENACITY
• The level of resistance or reaction of minerals
to stress such as crushing bending, breaking,
or tearing. It can tell if the mineral is brittle,
malleable, elastic, etc.
Physical Properties of Minerals

LUSTER
• Refers to the reaction of a
mineral to light. It determines
how brilliant or dull the
mineral is .
 Physical Properties of Minerals
ODOR
• A distinct smell of a mineral that is usually
released from a chemical reaction when
subjected to water, heat, air, or friction.
E.g. sulfur, smells like a lit match
 Physical Properties of Minerals

Specific Gravity
• A measure of the density of a mineral. It
determines how heavy the mineral is by its
weight to water.
• Used when two minerals have he same size
or the same color
 Chemical Properties of Minerals
Silicate Class
• Largest and most abundant group containing silicon and
oxygen with some aluminum, magnesium, iron and calcium.
Examples: feldspar, quartz, pyroxene, mica, garnet, olivine,
and amphibole

Feldspar Pyroxene Olivine Quartz

 Chemical Properties of Minerals
Carbonate Class
• Mostly found deposited in marine environments.
• Minerals belonging to this group are formed from the
shells of dead plankton and other marine organisms.

Aragonite Calcite Malachite

 Chemical Properties of Minerals
Sulfate Class
• Forms in areas with high evaporation rates and where salty
waters slowly evaporate.
• During the process, formation of sulphates and halides in
water-sediment interface occurs.

Anhydrite Blue Barite Gypsum

 Chemical Properties of Minerals
Halide Class
• Contains natural salts and includes fluorite, halite, sylvite, and sal
ammoniac components.
• Form in lakes, ponds, and other landlocked seas such as the Dead Sea
and the Great Salt Lake
• Have low hardness, may be transparent, good cleavage, low specific
gravity and poor conductors.

Halite Sylvite Flourite

 Chemical Properties of Minerals
Oxide Class
• diverse class
• formed as precipitates close to earth’s surface or as oxidation
products of minerals during the process of weathering
• These minerals are important as they carry histories of changes of
the Earth’s magnetic field.

Chrysobel Hematite Spinel

 Chemical Properties of Minerals
Sulphide Class
• Are found in electrical wires, industrial materials, and
other things that are needed in construction
• Considered economically significant

Copper Silver Lead

 Chemical Properties of Minerals
Phosphate Class
• Contains minerals with phosphorus
• Important biological mineral found in the teeth and
bones of many animals

Arsenic Phoshate Vanadium

 Chemical Properties of Minerals
Native Element Class
• contains metal and intermetallic elements (e.g., gold, silver,
copper), semimetals nonmetals (e.g., antimony, bismuth,
graphite, sulfur) or natural alloys, and constituents of a few
rare meteorites

Gold Silver Antimony Bismuth Graphite

Classification of Rocks
• IGNEOUS ROCKS
• SEDIMENTARY ROCKS
• METAMORPHIC ROCKS
 IGNEOUS ROCKS
• “ignis”, meaning “fire”
• formed by volcanic eruptions
 Types IGNEOUS ROCKS
Intrusive Igneous Rock or Plutonic
• Form when magma cools slowly below the Earth's surface. Most
intrusive rocks have large, well-formed crystals.
Examples include granite, gabbro, diorite and dunite.
Extrusive Igneous Rock or Volcanic
• Form when magma reaches the Earth's surface a volcano and
cools quickly. Most extrusive (volcanic) rocks have
small crystals.
Examples include basalt, rhyolite, andesite, andobsidian.
 IGNEOUS ROCKS CLASSIFIED BY
COMPOSITION

Texture/Color Light Medium Dark

Coarse-grained Granite Diorite Gabbro

(Intrusive)
Fine-grained Rhyolite Andesite Basalt
(Extrusive)
 Sedimentary Rocks
• “sediments” meaning “remaining particles”
• Sediments result from the uplift and weathering, which are
then transported and deposited from different areas.
• “lithification” the process by which the sediments are
transformed into solid sedimentary rocks
• Usually show bedding or layering at the surface
• Found in beaches, rivers, and oceans where sand, mud are
present
 Sedimentary Rocks
• Preserve or “record” the kind of environment that existed
when they were being formed.
• Scientist use sedimentary rocks to learn about he climate
and environment that had changed through Earth’s history

Hematite Sandstone
 Types of Sedimentary Rocks
Detrimental Sedimentary Rock
• These rocks come from weathered rocks such as
igneous rocks
Chemical Sedimentary Rock
• These rocks come from soluble materials
produced largely by chemical weathering
 CLASSIFICATION OF SEDIMENTARY ROCKS
BASED ON PARTICLE SIZE

Particle size Sediment Rock

Coarse Gravel (round Conglomerate
particle) Breccia
Gravel (angular
particles)

Medium Sand Sandstone

Fine Mud Siltstone
Very fine Mud Shale
 CLASSIFICATION OF SEDIMENTARY ROCKS
BASED ON CHEMICAL COMPOSITION
Composition Rock Name
Calcite Limestone coquina
Fossil ferrous
Biochemical limestone
Limestone
Chalk
Quartz Chert (light-colored)
Flint (dark-colored)
Gypsum Rock Gypsum
Halite Rock salt
Altered plant Fragment Bituminous rock
 Metamorphic Rocks
• “meta” meaning “change” and morph means “form”
• Came from preexisting rocks called “parent rocks”
• Rocks that derive from igneous or sedimentary rocks
that were exposed to high pressure, temperature , or
a combination of both deep below the Earth’s
surface.
• “metamorphism” the process of transformation of
parent rock
Metamorphic Rocks

Migmatite Gneiss
 COMMON METAMORPHIC ROCKS

Rock Name Description Parent Rock

Slate Foliated; fine Shale
grained
Gneiss Foliated; Granite, volcanic
medium to rock
coarse-grained
Marble Nonfoliated; Limestone
medium to
coarse-grained