PETROLOGY

• The three main types of rock

are sedimentary, metamorphic, and igneous.
• Igneous Rocks
– Igneous rocks are crystalline solids which form
directly from the cooling of magma. This is an
exothermic process (it loses heat) and involves
a phase change from the liquid to the solid state.
The earth is made of igneous rock - at least at the
surface where our planet is exposed to the
coldness of space.
• Sedimentary Rocks
• In most places on the surface, the igneous rocks which make up the majority of
the crust are covered by a thin veneer of loose sediment, and the rock which is
made as layers of this debris get compacted and cemented together. Sedimentary
rocks are called secondary, because they are often the result of the accumulation
of small pieces broken off of pre-existing rocks. There are three main types of
sedimentary rocks:
• Clastic: Clastic sedimentary rocks are accumulations of clasts: little pieces of
broken up rock which have piled up and been "lithified“ (transformation into
stone) by compaction and cementation.
• Chemical: these form when standing water evaporates, leaving dissolved minerals
behind. These are very common in arid. Thick deposits of salt and gypsum can
form due to repeated flooding and evaporation over long periods of time.
• Organic: any accumulation of sedimentary debris caused by organic processes.
Many animals use calcium for shells, bones, and teeth. These bits of calcium can
pile up on the seafloor and accumulate into a thick enough layer to form an
"organic" sedimentary rock.
• The metamorphics get their name from "meta"
(change) and "morph" (form). Any rock can become a
metamorphic rock. All that is required is for the rock to
be moved into an environment in which the minerals
which make up the rock become unstable and out of
equilibrium with the new environmental conditions. In
most cases, this involves burial which leads to a rise in
temperature and pressure. The metamorphic changes
in the minerals always move in a direction designed to
restore equilibrium. Common metamorphic rocks
include slate, schist, gneiss, and marble.
TYPES OF IGNEOUS ROCKS
 Types of igneous rocks
• Igneous rocks are classified based upon two
things: composition (what they are made of) and
texture (how big the crystals are).
• Classification based on Texture
Intrusive igneous rocks (Plutonic) crystallize
below Earth's surface, and the slow cooling that
occurs there allows large crystals to form.
Extrusive igneous rocks (Volcanic) erupt onto the
surface, where they cool quickly to form small
crystals. Some cool so quickly that they form an
amorphous glass.
• Types based on Composition
– Felsic
– Intermediate
– Mafic
– Ultramafic
FORMATION OF IGNEOUS ROCKS
 Lava flow
• Lava flows are streams of
lava that pour out of a
volcanic vent or fissure.
• Basalt is an example of
an extrusive igneous rock
formed from dark-colored
lava.
• Rhyolite is an example of
an extrusive igneous rock
formed from light-colored
lava. Aerial view of lava flow
 Fissure
• A long crack on the
Earth's surface from
which lava pours out is
called a fissure. This
type of volcanic activity
is called a 'fissure
eruption'.

Lava erupts from a fissure in northern Iceland's

Holuhraun lava field.
 Volcanic Neck
• This landform, which is also called a
volcanic plug, is created when
magma solidifies inside a conduit
leading to a volcano or a volcanic
vent. Because the resulting rock is
typically harder than the material it
intrudes into, it's left standing after
the surrounding, softer rock has
eroded away.
• Although the use of "volcanic" in
the name suggests that volcanic
necks are extrusive features, they
are comprised of intrusive igneous
rocks.
 Volcanic Cone
• Volcanic cones are
steep-sided hills or
mountains built of
layers of erupted lava
flows and fragments of
volcanic rocks that have
piled up around a
central vent.
 Volcanic Pipe
• A volcanic pipe is a vertical
conduit beneath a volcano
through which magma once
passed on its journey from
the magma chamber to the
eruption site. Over time,
volcanic pipes usually
become clogged by
solidified magma and other
volcanic rocks, leaving a
hard, cylindrical-shaped
formation behind.
 Magma Chamber
• A magma chamber is a pool of
molten rock material located
beneath the Earth's surface.
Over long periods of time,
magma chambers can
crystallize into large intrusive
igneous rock formations called
batholiths. Magma chambers
can be the source of both
magma and lava.
• An inactive magma chamber
will cool slowly over time. This
slow cooling allows the
magma to crystallize into a
coarse-grained igneous rock.
 Lopolith
• A lopolith is a large,
layered igneous intrusion
that is distinguished by
the convex-downward
bowl shape of its floor
and whose top can either
be flat or convex down.
• Lopoliths are intrusions of
igneous rocks with bowl-
shaped floors and either
flat or bowl-shaped tops.
 Stock
• A relatively small
igneous intrusion that
forms when magma
crystallizes
underground. Although
uplift and/or erosion
can later unearth part
of a stock, this feature is
defined as having less
than 40 square miles
exposed at the surface.
 Dike
• A tabular igneous
intrusion that crosses
through other (layered
or non-layered) rocks at
a steep angle. Dikes can
occur alone or in sets
and may be comprised
of light (high-silica) or
dark (low-silica) rocks,
or any composition in
between.
 Sill
• A sill is a flat, sheet-like
igneous rock mass that
forms when magma
intrudes into and
crystallizes between
preexisting rock layers.
 Laccolith
• Laccoliths are intrusive
igneous rock formations
distinguished by their
characteristic lens shapes.
These features form when
the pressure of the
magma intruding
between preexisting
layers causes the
overlying rocks to dome
up, creating a mushroom
shape.
 Batholith
• A relatively large
igneous intrusion that
forms when magma
crystallizes
underground and is
later partially exposed
following uplift and/or
erosion.
ENGINEERING PROPERTIES OF
IGNEOUS ROCKS
GRANITE
• Granite is a coarse-grained, light-colored igneous
rock composed mainly of feldspars and quartz
with minor amounts of mica and amphibole
minerals.
• Granite is a plutonic rock in which quartz makes
up between 10 and 50 percent of the felsic
components and alkali feldspar accounts for 65 to
90 percent of the total feldspar content.
The specimen above is a typical granite. It is about two inches across. The grain size is
coarse enough to allow recognition of the major minerals. The pink grains are
orthoclase feldspar, and the clear to smoky grains are quartz or muscovite. The black
grains can be biotite or hornblende. Numerous other minerals can be present in
granite.
This triangular diagram is a classification method for granitic rocks. It is
based upon the relative abundance of feldspars (K-Na-Ca) and quartz. Mafic
elements are not considered.
ENGINEERING PROPERTIES OF
GRANITE
 DIORITE
• Diorite is the name used for a group of coarse-
grained igneous rocks with a composition
between that of granite and basalt. It usually
occurs as large intrusions, dikes, and sills within
continental crust.
• Diorite is usually composed of sodium-
rich plagioclase with lesser amounts
of hornblende and biotite. It usually contains
little if any quartz. This makes diorite a coarse-
grained rock with a contrasting mix of black and
white mineral grains.
This specimen clearly shows the familiar "salt and pepper" appearance of diorite,
produced by white plagioclase contrasting with black hornblende and biotite. This
specimen is about two inches across.
DOLERITE
DOLERITE
 BASALT
• Basalt is a dark-colored, fine-grained, igneous
rock composed mainly of plagioclase and
pyroxene minerals. It most commonly forms as an
extrusive rock, such as a lava flow, but can also
form in small intrusive bodies, such as an igneous
dike or a thin sill. It has a composition similar
to gabbro.
• The difference between basalt and gabbro is that
basalt is a fine-grained rock while gabbro is a
coarse-grained rock.
 Thermal image of a hot basalt flow on the
Basalt is usually black in color. The
flank of Hawaii's Kilauea volcano. Hot lava at
specimen shown is about two inches (five
the front of the flow is revealed in yellow,
centimeters) across.
orange and red colors. The channel that it
flowed through on the previous day appears as
a purple and blue track.
Properties of Basalt
USES
TEXTURE AND COMPOSITION OF
IGNEOUS ROCKS
 Texture of Igneous rocks
Texture of Igneous Rocks is defined as the mutual
relationship of different mineralogical constituent in a
rock. It is determined by the size, shape, and
arrangement of mineral grain within the rock body. It
also depends upon degree of crystallization, if the rate
of cooling is slower coarser is the grain.
The texture of rock depends on many factors.
• Degree of crystallisation
• Granularity
• Fabric
 DEGREE OF CRYSTALLIZATION

Holocrystalline: This texture is seen in those rocks

which are made entirely of crystals formed as the
result of slow cooling. The crystals may or may not
be visible without magnification.

Holohyaline: This texture is seen in those rocks

which are made entirely of glassy material i.e.
there is no crystal visible. This texture is the
result of rapid cooling (Quenching).

Hypocrystalline: This texture is seen in those rocks

which are made up of both crystals and glass which
indicate that initially their was a period of slow
cooling followed by quenching.
 GRANULARITY
• Coarse grained: When the average size of
mineral grains of the rock is more than 5mm.
• Medium grained: Average size is between 1 –
2mm.
• Fine grained: Average size is less than 1 mm.
 FABRIC
• This includes relative grain size, shapes of
different minerals, degree of perfection in the
form of crystals.
• Based on shape of crystals:
– Euhederal: Grains completely bounded by crystal
faces
– Subhederal: Grains partly bounded by crystal faces
– Anhederal : Grains completely devoid of crystal
boundaries.
a) Euhederal b) Subhederal c)Anhederal texture
• Based on relative grain size:
– Equigranular texture(All minerals are of equal dimensions)
• Panidiomorphic- When most of the grains are euhedral
• Hypidiomorphic - When most of the grains are subhedral
• Allotriomorphic - When most of the grains are anhedral
– Inequigranular
• Porphyritic - When an igneous rock contains large crystals of some
minerals in a matrix which is much finer grained or even glassy, the
texture is called “Porphyritic”. The large crystals are called
‘phenocrysts’ and the finer grained material is called ‘groundmass’.
• Poiklitic - When in a rock smaller crystals are enclosed within
larger crystals without common orientation, the texture is called
‘pokilitic Texture’.
 Equigranular texture

Inequigranular texture
STRUCTURE OF IGNEOUS ROCKS
 Flow Structures: Sometimes an igneous rock shows
parallel or sub parallel bands or streaks which are caused
by the flow of magma or lava during cooling and
crystallization. Such structures are called the ‘flow
structures’

Pillow structure: This is characterized by the development

of bulbous, overlapping, pillow like structure in the body
of igneous mass.
 Ropy and Blocky Lava: These are structural
variation developed in the volcanic rocks due to
different mobility. Highly viscous “dry” lava
undergo very little movement after their eruption
and before cooling. Their surface show broken
and fragmented appearance. These are called the
blocky lava. On the other hand very mobile lava
flow for considerable distance and cooling during
flow process so that its upper surface is smooth
wrinkled rather than that actually broken. The
surface is referred as ropy lava.

Vesicular Structure: Most lava contains large

amounts of gas and volatiles. These gas and volatiles
escape into the atmosphere when they solidify on
the earth’s surface. As a result of this, numerous gas
cavities are formed near tops of lava flows. These
gas cavities are called the “vesicles” and the volcanic
rock contains vesicles is said to have a “vesicular
structure”.
 Amygdaloidal Structure: The vesicles of
volcanic rocks may subsequently be filled
by the secondary minerals such as calcite
and zeolites. Such filled vesicles are called
the “amygdales” and the rock is said to
have an “amygdaloidal structure”.

Pegmatitic Structure: If the constituent mineral

grains exceed several centimeter in size, the rock
is said to have a “pegmatitic structure”. The
pegmatitic structure shows a course and very
irregular type of crystallization.

Xenothilic Structures: When these foreign rock

fragments are included into the magma when it
rises up towards the Earth’s Surface. If they are
not digested, they remain entrapped within the
mass of the igneous rock and produce
heterogeneity in the texture. Such entrapped
fragments of foreign rocks are called the
‘xenoliths’ and the structure is called the
“Xenolith structure”.
THE ROCK CYCLE
SEDIMENTARY ROCKS
• Rock materials from pre-existing rocks (such as
metamorphic, igneous and previously shaped sedimentary
rocks) that have been eroded, weathered and compacted
over time, make up sedimentary rocks.
• These types of rocks are therefore, formed from previously
existing rocks that are unrelentingly weathered or eroded,
then deposited.
• They are transported to the deposit site by agents of
denudation (e.g. water, ice, wind and mass movements).
After being deposited, they are compacted and cemented
through lithification. Lithification is the process through
which sediments are changed into a rock.
FORMATION OF SEDIMENTARY ROCKS
• This involves the following processes:
– Weathering
– Erosion
– Deposition
– Compaction
– Cementation
 TYPES OF SEDIMENTARY ROCKS
• Chemical
Chemical sedimentary rocks occur when components of water evaporate and
previously dissolved minerals are left behind. These types of sedimentary rocks
usually occur in arid areas; like gypsum and salt deposits. Examples of chemical
sedimentary rocks are: chert, dolomites, flint, rock salt, iron ore and some types of
limestone.
• Clastic
Clastic sedimentary rocks occur when there is buildup of tiny pieces of broken rocks
(clastics). These are deposited due to mechanical weathering and lithification of
the rocks through cementation and compaction. Breccias, shale, sandstone and
siltstone are all examples of this type of sedimentary rocks.
• Organic
Organic sedimentary rocks occur as a result of the accumulation of any form of animal
or plant remains like bones. Animal and plant debris contain calcium that piles up
on the floor of water bodies over years to create organic sedimentary rocks.
Examples of this kind of rocks are coal, some types of dolomites and some forms
of limestone.
SOME IMPORTANT SEDIMENTARY
ROCKS
 CONGLOMERATE
• Conglomerates belong to the group of clastic
sedimentary rocks. They result from the
cementation of semi-rounded pieces of broken
rock. The semi-rounded pieces show that they
have gone through abrasion and travelled quite
far from their previously existing rocks.
• Conglomerates are usually deposited at
shorelines or streams and may be in pea-sizes or
bigger. They are at times called pudding stone
and are used in the construction industry.
• Conglomerate can have a
variety of compositions. As a
clastic sedimentary rock, it can
contain clasts of any rock
material or weathering product
that is washed downstream.
• The rounded clasts of
conglomerate can
be mineral particles such as
quartz or feldspar, or they can
be sedimentary, metamorphic,
or igneous rock fragments.
• The matrix that binds the large The specimen is made up of chert
clasts together can be a and limestone clasts bound in a
mixture of sand, mud, and matrix of sand and clay.
chemical cement.
 USES
• Conglomerate has very few commercial uses. Its inability to break
cleanly makes it a poor candidate for dimension stone, and its
variable composition makes it a rock of unreliable physical strength
and durability.
• Conglomerate can be crushed to make a fine aggregate that can be
used where a low-performance material is suitable. Many
conglomerates are colorful and attractive rocks, but they are only
rarely used as an ornamental stone for interior use.
• Analysis of conglomerate can sometimes be used as a prospecting
tool. For example, most diamond deposits are hosted in kimberlite.
• In rare instances, conglomerate can be a "fossil placer deposit"
containing gold, diamonds, or other valuable minerals. These
conglomerates are mined, crushed, and processed as ores.
 BRECCIA
Breccia is a term most
often used for
clastic sedimentary
rocks that are composed of
large angular fragments (over
two millimeters in diameter).
The spaces between the
large angular fragments are
filled with a matrix of smaller
particles and a mineral The angular clasts in this breccia are
chert fragments. The matrix is an iron-
cement that binds the rock stained mix of clay- through sand-size
together. particles.
 Formation of Breccia
• Breccia forms where broken, angular fragments of rock
or mineral debris accumulate. One of the most
common locations for breccia formation is at the base
of an outcrop where mechanical weathering debris
accumulates. Another is in stream deposits a short
distance from the outcrop or on an alluvial fan.
• Some breccias form from debris flow deposits. The
angular particle shape reveals that they have not been
transported very far (transport wears the sharp points
and edges of angular particles into rounded shapes).
After deposition, the fragments are bound together by
a mineral cement or by a matrix of smaller particles
that fills the spaces between the fragments.
Difference between conglomerate and
breccia
• Breccia and conglomerate are very similar rocks. They are
both clastic sedimentary rocks composed of particles larger
than two millimeters in diameter. The difference is in the
shape of the large particles. In breccia the large particles
are angular in shape, but in conglomerate the particles are
rounded.
• The particle shape reveals a difference in how far the
particles were transported. Near the outcrop where the
fragments were produced by mechanical weathering, the
shape is angular. However, during transport by water away
from the outcrop, the sharp points and edges of those
angular fragments are abraded and rounded. The rounded
particles would form a conglomerate.
 Composition of Breccia
• Breccia has many compositions. Its composition is
mainly determined by the rock and mineral material
that the angular fragments were produced from. The
climate of the source area can also influence
composition. Most breccias are a mix of rock fragments
and mineral grains.
• The type of rock that the fragments were produced
from is often used as an adjective when referring to the
rock. Some examples: sandstone breccia, limestone
breccia, granite breccia, chert breccia, basalt breccia.
 Uses
• The rock, breccia, has very few uses. It can be
used as fill or road base where the technical
requirements are minimal. It is rarely used in
important projects because its composition,
degree of cementation and competence are
highly variable.
• These breccias are used as architectural stones
for interior building veneers, tiles, window sills,
and other decorative applications. These are
proprietary names applied to the rock from
specific quarries.
 Sand and Sandstone
• Sandstone is a sedimentary rock composed of
sand-size grains of mineral, rock, or organic
material. It also contains a cementing material
that binds the sand grains together and may
contain a matrix of silt- or clay-size particles that
occupy the spaces between the sand grains.
• Sand-size particles range in size from 1/16
millimeter to 2 millimeters in diameter.
Sandstones are rocks composed primarily of
sand-size grains.
 Formation
• The grains of sand in a sandstone are usually particles of mineral,
rock, or organic material that have been reduced to "sand" size by
weathering and transported to their depositional site by the action
of moving water, wind, or ice.
• Their time and distance of transport may be brief or significant,
and during that journey the grains are acted upon by chemical and
physical weathering.
• If the sand is deposited close to its source rock, it will resemble the
source rock in composition.
• However, the more time and distance that separate the source rock
from the sand deposit, the greater its composition will change
during transport.
• Grains that are composed of easily-weathered materials will be
modified, and grains that are physically weak will be reduced in size
or destroyed.
 Uses
• Sandstone is one of the
most common types of
sedimentary rock and is
found in sedimentary basins
throughout the world.
• It is often mined for use as a
construction material or as
a raw material used in
manufacturing.
• In the subsurface,
sandstone often serves as
an aquifer for groundwater
or as a reservoir for oil and
natural gas.
 Limestone
• Limestone is a sedimentary
rock composed primarily of
calcium carbonate (CaCO3) in the
form of the mineral calcite.
• It most commonly forms in clear,
warm, shallow marine waters. It
is usually an organic sedimentary
rock that forms from the
accumulation of shell, coral, algal,
and fecal debris.
• It can also be a chemical
sedimentary rock formed by the
precipitation of calcium
carbonate from lake or ocean A fine-grained, light-colored limestone
water. formed from the calcium carbonate
skeletal remains of tiny marine organisms.
 Formation
• Marine environment:
– Most limestones form in shallow, calm, warm marine
waters. That type of environment is where organisms
capable of forming calcium carbonate shells and
skeletons can easily extract the needed ingredients
from ocean water.
– When these animals die, their shell and skeletal debris
accumulate as a sediment that might be lithified into
limestone.
– Their waste products can also contribute to the
sediment mass. Limestones formed from this type of
sediment are biological sedimentary rocks.
• Evaporative environment:
– Limestone can also form through evaporation. Stalactites, stalagmites,
and other cave formations are examples of limestone that formed
through evaporation.
– In a cave, droplets of water seeping down from above enter the cave
through fractures or other pore spaces in the cave ceiling. There they
might evaporate before falling to the cave floor. When the water
evaporates, any calcium carbonate that was dissolved in the water will
be deposited on the cave ceiling. Over time, this evaporative process
can result in an accumulation of icicle-shaped calcium carbonate on
the cave ceiling. These deposits are known as stalactites
(கசிதுளிவீழ் ).
– If the droplet falls to the floor and evaporates there, a stalagmite
(கசிதுளிப் படிவு)could grow upwards from the cave floor.
Stalactites and Stalagmites
 Composition
• Limestone is by definition a rock that contains at least
50% calcium carbonate in the form of calcite by weight.
• All limestones contain at least a few percent other
materials. These can be small particles
of quartz, feldspar, clay minerals, pyrite, siderite, and
other minerals. It can also contain large nodules
of chert, pyrite, or siderite.
• The calcium carbonate content of limestone gives it a
property that is often used in rock identification - it
effervesces in contact with a cold solution of 5%
hydrochloric acid.
 Types
• Chalk: A soft limestone with a very fine texture that is
usually white or light gray in color. It is formed mainly from
the calcareous shell remains of microscopic marine
organisms such as foraminifers, or the calcareous remains
from numerous types of marine algae.
• Coquina: A poorly-cemented limestone that is composed
mainly of broken shell debris. It often forms on beaches
where wave action segregates shell fragments of similar
size.
• Fossiliferous Limestone: A limestone that contains obvious
and abundant fossils. These are normally shell and skeletal
fossils of the organisms that produced the limestone.
• Lithographic Limestone: A dense limestone with a very fine
and very uniform grain size that occurs in thin beds which
separate easily to form a very smooth surface.
• Oolitic Limestone: A limestone composed mainly of
calcium carbonate "oolites," small spheres formed by the
concentric precipitation of calcium carbonate on a sand
grain or shell fragment.
Travertine: A limestone that forms by evaporative
precipitation, often in a cave, to produce formations such
as stalactites, stalagmites, and flowstone.
Tufa: A limestone produced by precipitation of calcium-
laden waters at a hot spring, lake shore, or other location.
METAMORPHIC ROCKS
• Metamorphism is defined as follows:
The mineralogical and structural adjustment of
solid rocks to physical and chemical
conditions that have been imposed at depths
below the near surface zones of weathering
and diagenesis and which differ from
conditions under which the rocks in question
originated.
• Diagenesis is also a change in form that occurs in
sedimentary rocks. In geology, however, we restrict
diagenetic processes to those which occur at temperatures
below 200oC and pressures below about 300 Mpa.
• Metamorphism, therefore occurs at temperatures and
pressures higher than 200oC and 300 MPa. Rocks can be
subjected to these higher temperatures and pressures as
they are buried deeper in the Earth. Such burial usually
takes place as a result of tectonic processes such as
continental collisions or subduction.
• The upper limit of metamorphism occurs at the pressure
and temperature where melting of the rock in question
begins. Once melting begins, the process changes to an
igneous process rather than a metamorphic process.
GRADES OF METAMORPHISM
• Metamorphic rocks have been modified by heat,
pressure, and chemical processes, usually while
buried deep below Earth's surface. Exposure to
these extreme conditions has altered the
mineralogy, texture, and chemical composition of
the rocks.
• There are two basic types of metamorphic rocks.
– Foliated metamorphic rocks
– Non-foliated metamorphic rocks
• Foliated metamorphic rocks have a layered or
banded appearance that is produced by
exposure to heat and directed pressure.
• Non-foliated metamorphic rocks do not have
a layered or banded appearance.
SOME IMPORTANT METAMORPHIC
ROCKS
 GNEISS
• Gneiss is a metamorphic rock form characterized by
banding caused by segregation of different types of
rock, typically light and dark silicates.
• The "gneissic texture" refers to the segregation of light
and dark minerals.
• It is indicative of high-grade metamorphism where the
temperature is high enough, say 600-700 °C, so that
enough ion migration occurs to segregate the minerals.
• Within the banded structure are mostly elongated and
granular structures rather than sheets or plates. Some
gneisses will split along the layers of materials, but
most break in an irregular fashion.
•Gneiss usually does not split along planes of
weakness like most other metamorphic rocks. This
allows contractors to use gneiss as a crushed
stone in road construction, building site
preparation, and landscaping projects.
•Some gneiss is durable enough to perform well as
a dimension stone. These rocks are sawn or
sheared into blocks and slabs used in a variety of
building, paving, and curbing projects.
•Some gneiss accepts a bright polish and is
attractive enough for use as an architectural
stone. Beautiful floor tiles, facing stone, stair
treads, window sills, countertops, and cemetery
monuments are often made from polished gneiss.
 QUARTZITE
• Quartzite is a nonfoliated metamorphic rock composed
almost entirely of quartz.
• It forms when a quartz-rich sandstone is altered by the
heat, pressure, and chemical activity of metamorphism.
These conditions recrystallize the sand grains and the silica
cement that binds them together. The result is a network of
interlocking quartz grains of incredible strength.
• The interlocking crystalline structure of quartzite makes it a
hard, tough, durable rock. It is so tough that it breaks
through the quartz grains rather than breaking along the
boundaries between them.
• This is a characteristic that separates true quartzite from
sandstone.
•Quartzite is usually white to gray in color. Some rock units that are stained by
iron can be pink, red, or purple. Other impurities can cause quartzite to be
yellow, orange, brown, green, or blue.
•The quartz content of quartzite gives it a hardness of about seven on
the Mohs Hardness Scale.
•Its extreme toughness made it a favorite rock for use as an impact tool by
early people. Its conchoidal fracture allowed it to be shaped into large cutting
tools such as ax heads and scrapers.
•Quartzite is an extremely
durable crushed stone that is suitable for
use in the most demanding applications.
Its soundness and abrasion resistance are
superior to most other materials.
•Its hardness and toughness cause heavy
wear on equipments. As a result, the use
of quartzite is mainly limited to
geographic areas where other aggregates
are not available.
 MARBLE
• Marble is a metamorphic rock that forms
when limestone is subjected to the heat and pressure
of metamorphism.
• It is composed primarily of the mineral calcite (CaCO3)
and usually contains other minerals, such as clay
minerals, micas, quartz, pyrite, iron oxides,
and graphite.
• Under the conditions of metamorphism, the calcite in
the limestone recrystallizes to form a rock that is a
mass of interlocking calcite crystals.
• A related rock, dolomitic marble, is produced
when dolostone is subjected to heat and pressure.
 Most marble forms at convergent plate
boundaries where large areas of Earth's crust
are exposed to regional metamorphism. Some
marble also forms by contact metamorphism
when a hot magma body heats adjacent
limestone or dolostone.
Before metamorphism, the calcite in the
limestone is often in the form of
lithified fossil material and biological debris.
During metamorphism, this calcite
recrystallizes and the texture of the rock
changes. In the early stages of the limestone-
to-marble transformation, the calcite crystals in
the rock are very small.
As metamorphism progresses, the crystals grow larger and become easily
recognizable as interlocking crystals of calcite. Recrystallization is what marks the
separation between limestone and marble. Marble that has been exposed to low
levels of metamorphism will have very small calcite crystals. The crystals become
larger as the level of metamorphism progresses. Clay minerals within the marble
will alter to micas and more complex silicate structures as the level of
metamorphism increases.
• Marble occurs in large deposits that can be hundreds of
feet thick and geographically extensive. This allows it to be
economically mined on a large scale, with some mines and
quarries producing millions of tons per year.
• Most marble is made into either crushed stone or
dimension stone.
• Crushed stone is used as an aggregate in highways, railroad
beds, building foundations, and other types of
construction.
• Dimension stone is produced by sawing marble into pieces
of specific dimensions. These are used in monuments,
buildings, sculptures, paving and other projects.
 SLATE
• Slate is a fine-grained, foliated metamorphic
rock that is created by the alteration of shale or
mudstone by low-grade regional metamorphism.
•Slate is composed mainly of
clay minerals or micas,
depending upon the degree
of metamorphism to which it
has been subjected. The
original clay minerals in shale
alter to micas with increasing
levels of heat and pressure.
• The tectonic environment for producing slate is usually
a former sedimentary basin that becomes involved in a
convergent plate boundary.
• Shales and mudstones in that basin are compressed by
horizontal forces with minor heating. These forces and
heat modify the clay minerals in the shale and
mudstone.
• Foliation develops at right angles to the compressive
forces of the convergent plate boundary to yield a
vertical foliation that usually crosses the bedding
planes that existed in the shale.
• Most of the slate mined throughout the world is used to produce
roofing slates. Slate performs well in this application because it can
be cut into thin sheets, absorbs minimal moisture, and stands up
well in contact with freezing water.
• A disadvantage is the cost of the slate and its installation in
comparison with other roofing materials. As a result, in new
construction slate is mainly confined to high-end projects and
prestige architecture.
• Slate is also used for interior flooring, exterior paving, dimension
stone, and decorative aggregate.
• Historically slate has been used for chalkboards, student writing
slates, billiard tables, cemetery markers, whetstones, and table
tops. Because it is a good electrical insulator, it was also used for
early electric panels and switch boxes.
 SCHIST
• Schist is a foliated metamorphic rock made up of plate-shaped
mineral grains that are large enough to see with an unaided eye.
• It usually forms on a continental side of a convergent plate
boundary where sedimentary rocks, such as shales and
mudstones, have been subjected to compressive forces, heat, and
chemical activity.
• This metamorphic environment is intense enough to convert the
clay minerals of the sedimentary rocks into platy
metamorphic minerals such as muscovite, biotite, and chlorite.
• To become schist, a shale must be metamorphosed in steps
through slate and then through phyllite. If the schist is
metamorphosed further, it might become a granular rock known
as gneiss.
 •Schist is a rock that has been exposed to a
moderate level of heat and a moderate level
of pressure.
•In the convergent plate boundary
environment, heat and chemical activity
transform the clay minerals of shales and
mudstones into platy mica minerals such as
muscovite, biotite, and chlorite.
•The directed pressure pushes the
transforming clay minerals from their
random orientations into a common parallel
alignment where the long axes of the platy
minerals are oriented perpendicular to the
direction of the compressive force.
•This transformation of minerals show that,
it is no longer a sedimentary rock but a low
grade metamorphic rock.
Schist is not a rock with numerous industrial uses. Its abundant mica grains and its
schistosity make it a rock of low physical strength, usually unsuitable for use as
a construction aggregate, building stone, or decorative stone. The only exception is for
its use as a fill when the physical properties of the material are not critical.
 PHYLLITE
• Phyllite is a foliated metamorphic rock that has been
subjected to low levels of heat, pressure and chemical
activity. It is composed mainly of flake-shaped
mica minerals in parallel alignment.
• The strong parallel alignment of the mica grains allows
the rock to be easily split into sheets or slabs. The
alignment of the mica grains gives phyllite a reflective
sheen that distinguishes it from slate.
• Phyllite is usually gray, black, or greenish in color and
often weathers to a tan or brown. Its reflective sheen
often gives it a silvery, nonmetallic appearance.
•Phyllite was originally a fine-grained sedimentary rock such as shale or mudstone,
composed mainly of clay minerals in a semi-random orientation.
•The rock was then buried and subjected to enough directed pressure to move the clay
mineral grains towards parallel alignment, and enough heat and chemical activity to
begin transforming the clay mineral grains into chlorite or a mica mineral. At that point
it was the metamorphic rock known as slate.
•Continued heat and chemical activity completed the clay-to-mica transformation and
caused the mica grains to enlarge. Additional directed pressure brought the mica
grains into a strong parallel alignment. The result is the rock known as “phyllite”.
•Phyllite does not have any important industrial
uses. It is not strong enough to serve well as
a crushed stone. However, slabs of phyllite are
occasionally trimmed and used as landscape,
paving or sidewalk stone.
•Phyllite can provide valuable information
about the geologic conditions that a geographic
area or a rock mass was subjected to in the
past. It is a low-grade metamorphic rock that
reveals the upper limit of heat and pressure to
which the rocks were exposed.
TEXTURES IN METAMORPHIC
ROCKS
• Foliation: when platy, lamellar or flaky minerals
(eg. sheet silicate minerals the micas: biotite and
muscovite, chlorite, talc, and serpentine),
occurring in rock orient themselves parallel to
one another (i.e. perpendicular to the direction of
maximum pressure or stress).
•Slaty Cleavage - a pervasive, parallel foliation
(layering) of fine-grained platy minerals (chlorite) in a
direction perpendicular to the direction of maximum
stress. Produces the rocks slate and phyllite.
During the earliest
stages of low grade
metamorphism,
most pressure is
from the weight of
overlying rock.

Therefore the new sheet structure minerals, such as clay, tend to

parallel the bedding planes of the sedimentary rock being
metamorphosed.
 With folding the
sedimentary clay
layering folds with the
rock so that the layering
still runs parallel with
the bedding planes. At
this point the rock is still
sedimentary.

With deeper burial or under the

influence of compression,
metamorphism begins. The
sedimentary clay minerals are
converted into the mineral
chlorite, that has flat basal
cleavage like a mica.
• Schistosity: The layering in a coarse grained,
crystalline rock due to the parallel
arrangement of platy mineral grains such as
muscovite and biotite. Other minerals present
are typically quartz and feldspar, plus a variety
of other minerals such as garnet, staurolite,
kyanite, sillimanite.
At intermediate and high grades of
metamorphism the chlorite breaks
down and recrystallizes to form
quartz, feldspar, and mica. The grain
size also increases and individual
mineral grains can be seen with the
unaided eye.
Foliation in coarse grained
metamorphic rocks is called
SCHISTOSITY. In a hand sample the
foliation can be easily seen, and
ususally runs planar through the
rock; that is, it all runs the same
direction. In larger specimens,
however, the foliation may be
folded.
Gneissic Mineral Banding: The
layering in a rock in which bands or
lenses of granular minerals (quartz
and feldspar) alternate with bands
or lenses in which platy (mica) or
elongate (amphibole) minerals
predominate.
The most intense form of foliation
is mineral banding. At the highest
grades of metamorphism, minerals
begin to segregate into separate
bands. The micaceous minerals
separate from the quartz and
feldspars.
FENCE DIAGRAM
• Fence diagrams allow greater illumination of facies
relationships through the connections of several
measured sections. The sections could be surface sections,
subsurface sections constructed from well data, or a
combination of the two. Each section of the fence is
termed a panel.
• In geology, a facies is a body of rock with specified
characteristics, which can be any observable attribute of
rocks (such as their overall appearance, composition, or
condition of formation), and the changes that may occur in
those attributes over a geographic area. It is the sum total
characteristics of a rock including its chemical, physical, and
biological features that distinguishes it from adjacent rock.
• Fence Diagram produces a profile of the surface
and strata along the selected baseline polyline-a
geological cross-section.
• The use of a fence diagram is most useful in areas
where there is significant stratigraphic variations,
both vertically and horizontally.
• They are also useful for areas where drill holes or
sampling stations are scattered geographically,
making a straight line section impossible.
EXAMPLE OF FENCE DIAGRAM
 Some important terms
• A geologic column is a composite diagram that shows, in a
single column, the sequence of stratigraphic units in a given
locality or region. A geologic column would include
information collected from several drill holes, or sampling
sites, to form a single generalized stratigraphic section. The
geologic column typically places the oldest rocks at the
bottom and the youngest at the top, with all inclined strata
adjusted to the horizontal. The purpose of the geologic
column is to identify the different geologic strata based on
age and their relative position to one another.
• A geologic cross section is a diagram or drawing, made
from actual observations or inferred from other evidence,
of underground geologic conditions along a given line or
plane of the earth's crust .
ILLUSTRATION OF A GEOLOGIC CROSS
SECTION
ILLUSTRATION OF A GEOLOGIC
COLUMN
PREPARATION OF FENCE DIAGRAM
• For preparing fence diagram the following procedure is
followed:
– Mark the locations of cross sections on a paper.
– Determine the total thickness of geologic columns.
– Determine the scale to draw the length of the column.
– Draw a vertical line representing the length of the section, and
you mark off the stratigraphic boundaries along the line.
– choose pairs of sections between which to draw the “fence” or
panels, i.e. the facies and stratigraphic relationships. The
selection of panels should be based on the relative locations of
sections and the lithologic and stratigraphic variations.
– Most sections will be connected to two other sections with
panels. Some will be connected to three and those on the edges
may be connected to only one. In cases were a section is
connected to three others, one of the panels will be partially
hidden behind another one We will make a fence diagram
linking therespective columns.