ROCKS

• Defined as: Natural solid massive aggregates of minerals

which form the Earth Crust. Petrology
• A professional Civil Engineer has to deal with the rocks during
his work involving the planning, designing and management of
the construction of Civil Engineering Projects which are laid on
the rocks.

Rocks of the Earth Crust are divided into three main groups:
Igneous Rocks, Sedimentary Rocks and Metamorphic Rocks

We will study their: Composition, Texture, Structure, Classification,

Mode of Formation and Occurrence of the rocks.
ROCKS: IGNEOUS ROCKS
• Defined as: The rocks which are formed from the hot molten
material – Magma (inside the earth) and Lava (when erupted
through the volcanos on the earth surface) by the process of
cooling, crystallization and solidification of the rock material are
known as Igneous Rocks.
• Extremely high temperature of the surrounding strata and
molten material from which an igneous rock is formed, are the
two important conditions for the origination of an igneous rock.
ROCKS: IGNEOUS ROCKS
• (1) Igneous Rocks are divided into Three Groups:
• (a) Volcanic Igneous Rocks or simply Volcanic Rocks – also
known as Extrusive Igneous Rocks or simply Extrusive
Rocks
• Formed on the surface or in the water i.e., above the earth - by
cooling, crystallization and solidification of lava erupted from the
volcanos.
• Lava cools down very rapidly on the earth surface or in the water
as compared to the cooling of magma inside the earth
• These types of rocks are fine grained to very fine grained -they
mostly look like blackish or greying glass in texture
• Examples of some common Volcanic Igneous Rocks are:
• Obsidian, Pumice (vesicular), Rhyolite, Andesite, Basalt,
Trachyte, Scoria (vesicular) and Tuff (volcanic ash)
ROCKS: VOLCANIC IGNEOUS ROCKS
Obsidian Pumice Rhyolite Andesite

Basalt Trachyte Scoria Tuff

ROCKS: IGNEOUS ROCKS
• (b) Plutonic Igneous Rocks or simply Plutonic Rocks – also
known as Intrusive Igneous Rocks or simply Intrusive Rocks
• An Intrusive Igneous Rock is also called Pluton
• Formed by cooling, crystallization and solidification of magma
inside the earth.
• Magma cools down very slowly.
• These types of rocks are coarse grained in texture
• Found at considerable depth – usually between 7 to 10 km from
the earth surface
• Get exposed due to weathering or erosion.
• Examples of some common Plutonic Igneous Rocks are:
• Granite, Diorite, Gabbro, Anorthosite, Granodiorite, Pyroxinite,
Nephelinite and Monzonite
 ROCKS: PLUTONIC IGNEOUS ROCKS
Granite Diorite Gabbro Anorthosite

Granodioite Pyroxinite Nephelinite Monzonite

ROCKS: HYPABYSSAL IGNEOUS ROCKS
(c) HYPABYSSAL IGNEOUS ROCKS:
• These are the igneous rocks formed at intermediate depth (than
the previous two types of igneous rocks) – usually up to 2 km
from the surface.
• Chemical Composition of Igneous Rocks: Silica, Alumina
and oxides of Iron (silica being the most dominant and oxides of
iron being the least) are the three major constituents of all the
igneous rocks.
 IGNEOUS ROCKS:
Mineralogical Composition of Igneous Rocks: Feldspar,
Amphibole, Pyroxene and Quartz (Feldspar being the most
dominant and Quartz being the least) are the major constituents
of all the igneous rocks.
ROCKS: COMMON ROCK FORMING MINERALOGICAL
CONSTITUENTS OF IGNEOUS ROCKS
Feldspar: Occurring principally in igneous plutonic rocks and in
some metamorphic rocks too.
• Consisting of silicates of aluminum with potassium, sodium
and calcium.
• About 60 percent of the earth crust is composed of feldspar
Amphibole: Any of a large group of igneous rock-forming minerals
• Consisting of the silicates of calcium, iron, magnesium,
sodium, and Aluminium.
Pyroxene: Any of a group of crystalline silicate rock-forming minerals
• Common in igneous and metamorphic rocks.
• Containing two metallic oxides, usually of magnesium, iron, calcium,
sodium and aluminum.
Quartz: A very hard crystalline mineral of silica
• Varieties of quartz are: Agate, Chalcedony, Chert, Flint, Opal and
Rock Crystals
 ROCKS: TEXTURE OF IGNEOUS ROCKS
• Texture of igneous Rocks is determined by several factors e.g.
• Size, shape and arrangement of the rock forming minerals
• Speed and duration of cooling
• Formation or non-formation of crystals
• Viscosity of magma or lava
• Types and percentage i.e., quantity of constituents present in
the magma or lava
Degree of Crystallisation: In Igneous Rocks, all the constituent
minerals may be present in distinctly crystallized form and easily
recognized. These are of Three Types:
(i) Holocrystalline: When all the constituent minerals are distinctly
crystalline in nature.
(ii) Holohyaline: When all the constituent minerals are very fine in size
and glassy in texture or non-crystalline in nature.
(iii) Merocrystalline: It is the intermediate condition of crystallization of
constituent minerals in the same rock.
ROCKS: GRANULARITY OF IGNEOUS ROCKS TEXTURE
Granularity: It is the formation of the size of grains in a rock
(i) Coarse Grained: Grain size: > 5 mm
(ii) Medium Grained: Grain size: 5 to I mm
(iii) Fine Grained: Grain size: < 1 mm
Types of Igneous Intrusions:
Intrusion: Movement or placement of magma in pre-existing
rock within the earth crust – also known as Injection of Magma.
• Pre-existing Rock is known as Host Rock and the intrusive
igneous rock formed after the cooling and solidification of
intruding magma is known as Intrusive Body
It is of Two Types: (i) Concordant Bodies (ii) Discordant Bodies
(1) Concordant Bodies: When the magma has been injected and
cooled and solidified along or parallel to the structural plane /
stratification of the Host Rock. These are of Four Types:
(a) Sill: When magma is injected along or between the bedding
planes: Simple, Multiple and Composite Sills
IGNEOUS ROCKS: TYPES OF SILLS
 Simple Sill: When there is a single injection of Intrusive Body
 Multiple Sill: When there are two or more injections of Intrusive
Bodies (of the same type of magma) parallel to each other
 Composite Sill: When there are different Intrusive Bodies
comprising different types of magmas in the same host rock
(ii) Phacolith: When the Intrusive Body takes the shape of crest
and trough (like a wave) – known as Fold
(iii) Lapolith: When it takes the shape of less or more regular
bowl – known as Structural Basin
(iv) Laccolith: When it takes the shape of less or more regular
dome– known as Structural Dome
(2) Discordant Bodies: (i) Dykes or Dikes: These are the
Columnar Intrusive Bodies which cut across the bedding planes or
unconformities.
IGNEOUS ROCKS: TYPES OF DYKES
Unconformity: A surface separating two rock masses or strata of
different ages, indicating that that sedimentary deposition was not
continuous in nature.
(ii) Volcanic Neck: In some cases, the dead or dormant volcanos
become sealed with intrusions - known as Volcanic Neck or
Volcanic Plug
(iii) Batholith: These are the huge bodies of igneous masses that
show both concordant and discordant relations with the country
rock (an enormous big host rock)
 Usually the Batholiths show granitic composition, texture and
structure
 Granitic: Quality or nature of Igneous Rock as being coarse-
grained, light-colored and hard to very hard in hardness and
chiefly composed of quartz  Granitic Structure & Texture
 SEDIMENTARY ROCKS
 Sedimentary Rocks are also called Secondary Rocks
 Formed by accumulation, compaction and consolidation of
Sediments i.e., sand, silt, clay, mud which are collectively known
as Soil usually in their dry condition
 Sediment is defined as the particles produced from the decay or
weathering of pre-existing rocks or derived from the remains of
dead sea or land animals or plants in certain environment
 Finally, the sediments are transformed into Solid Cohesive Mass
 Accumulation and compaction of these sediments takes place
under water or at least in the presence of water
 Rocks already existing on the earth surface are exposed to the
action of natural agencies: atmosphere, wind, water, snow,
chemical environment, etc
 SEDIMENTARY ROCKS
 Net result is the breakdown of the pre-existing rocks into
smaller and smaller parts till the ultimate size of sediments
 These sediments are transported to various distances and
finally deposited in a suitable basin
Basin: A large depression on the earth e.g. on the beds of lake,
river, sea, ocean, etc
 Some sediments are derived by the chemical processes of
Evaporation and Precipitation as Evaporites and Precipitates from
springs, lakes, lagoons, bays and sea/ocean waters
 Animal and plant lives also provide a big supply of Organic
Residue – which on gradual accumulation and compaction,
changes into the hard massive bodies of Sedimentary Rocks
 Sedimentary Rocks cover about 75% of the surface-area of the
earth crust – rest being covered by igneous and metamorphic
rocks
 But Sedimentary Rocks disappear soon even at shallow depths
 SEDIMENTARY ROCKS: FORMATION
 At the depth below 20 to 25 km from the earth surface, volume
of Sedimentary Rocks is estimated to be less than 10% of the
entire earth crust
 Sedimentary Rocks are grouped into Three Classes on the
basis of mode of their formation: (i) Mechanically Formed (ii)
Organically Formed (iii) Chemically Formed
(1) Mechanically Formed Rocks: Also known as Clastic Rocks
– Examples are: Breccia, Conglomerates & Sandstone
 A series of following steps are involved in the formation of
Clastic Rocks:
(i) Decay and Disintegration: Rocks existing on the earth
surface are exposed to Decay and Disintegration processes by
the action of Natural Agencies
 The original hard and coherent rocks are gradually broken
down into smaller and smaller fragments, grains and particles
SEDIMENTARY ROCKS: MODE OF FORMATION
 The decayed and disintegrated material so formed is called
Detritus – hence the Clastic Rocks are also called Detrital
Rocks
(ii) Transportation of Detritus: Detritus is transported to a
suitable place for transformation into rock mass again
The biggest transporting natural agencies are wind, water and
glacier
 The streams and rivers finally transport the Detritus into lakes
and seas / oceans, dumping it in the settling basins
 Winds transport the detritus from the fields, deserts and dry
lands – suspends in the atmosphere – dropped by the rains
finally into streams and rivers
 Glaciers break the rocks into fragments and particles and
dump them at snow-lines – this detritus is finally transported to
the rivers when the snow melts and drops its water into the
rivers
SEDIMENTARY ROCKS: MODE OF FORMATION
 Millions of tons of land mass is scratched by these natural
surface agencies and finally transported to seas and oceans
every year and deposited here
 Gradual Deposition: As the Sedimentary Rocks are formed in
different environments such as continents, rivers, sea-shores and
deep sea
 So the different Sedimentary Rocks formed in different
environments and show different inherent characteristics
 In Continental Environment  Glacial Deposits (Deposits formed by
the glaciers), Fluvial (related to Stream or River) Deposits and Eolian
(wind-driven) Deposits; each type giving rise to a definite type of
sediment accumulation
 The most important phenomenon which takes place during the
transportation and deposition is Sorting or Grading i.e. selection
and separation of the sedimentary particles on the basis of size,
shape and density or specific gravity and get deposited in form of
layers
SEDIMENTARY ROCKS: MODE OF FORMATION
 The said deposition takes place under ordinary pressure and
temperature
 They get converted to cohesive, hard and massive rock-
formation through the process of compaction, consolidation and
cementation – collectively known as Diagenesis
 Cohesion (binding) of the said deposits is achieved either by
Welding or Cementation
 Welding: It is a process of compaction of sediments in the lower
layers due to the load of overlying sediments, accumulated in a
basin
 Cementation: It is a process by which the particles of
sediments get held together by some binding material. The
binding material may be derived from within the accumulated
mass or from the fluid that percolates through the mass – that fluid
evaporates or precipitates in those particles; thus binding them in
form of a rock
SEDIMENTARY ROCKS: MODE OF FORMATION
(2) Chemically Formed (Non-clastic) Rocks: Water from rains,
springs, streams, rivers, lakes and underground sources dissolve
many compounds of the rocks which it comes in contact with
 In most of the cases, the said dissolved salts are carried by
running water to its ultimate destination – sea and ocean. Hence
sea water is highly brackish (salty in taste)
 In the final stages, the dissolved salts get crystallized to either
by evaporation or precipitation
 Example: Limestone is formed by the precipitation of carbonated
water due to the separation of CO2 from it
 Chemically formed Sedimentary Rocks are of two types:
(i) Precipitated known as Precipitates and (ii) Evaporated known
as Evaporites
 Examples of Precipitated Sedimentary Rocks are: Limestone
(CaCO3), Dolomite (CaMgCO3) and Silcrete (a rock formed by the
precipitation of silica)
SEDIMENTARY ROCKS: MODE OF FORMATION
 Examples of Evporated Sedimentary Rocks are: Halite (rock-
salt) and Gypsum (CaSO4. 2H2O)
(3) Organically Formed (Non-clastic) Rocks: Sea / ocean
waters cover about 75% of the earth globe
 These water bodies contain a great variety of animal and plant
lives
 Death and decay of these organisms in the water bodies
gradually results in the huge accumulation of carbonate materials
which get compacted and consolidated in form of rock as
described above
 Limestone is the best example of Organically formed
Sedimentary Rocks
(4) Miscellaneous Sedimentary Rocks: (i) Shale: a fine-grained
Sedimentary Rock of Argillaceous (of clay) composition
(ii) Coal: a metamorphosed Sedimentary Rock of carbonaceous
matter derived from plant material only
 SEDIMENTARY ROCKS
Miscellaneous Sedimentary Rocks: (iii) Iron Ore: iron ores of
Sedimentary Origin, chiefly hematite Fe2O3
(iv) Flint & Chert: (a) Flint: a fine-grained Sedimentary Rock of
quartz and (b) Chert: a Sedimentary Rock of cryptocrystalline
(having a microscopic crystalline structure) silica
Environment of Formation of Sedimentary Rocks:
(i) Continental Formation: They are usually less dense, loosely
packed and cemented
(ii) Transitional Formation: Sandstone, siltstone, claystone and
mudstone belong to this formation
(iii) Marine Formation: All the sedimentary rocks formed at sea and
ocean floors belong to this formation
Mineralogical Composition of Sedimentary Rocks:
 Carbonates, silica, quartz, calcite, feldspar, gypsum, clay-minerals
(Al.Phyllosilicates: Si2O5, and Iron with alkali metals and alkaline
earth metals), amphibole, pyroxene, olivine, dolomite, gypsum and
anhydrite (anhydrous CaSO )
 SEDIMENTARY ROCKS
Texture of Sedimentary Rocks mostly depends upon:
 Origin of grains (clastic or non-clastic texture)
 Size of grains  Shape of grains  Packing of grains
 Fabric of grains (orientation of longer axis of the grains)
 Crystallisation trend
Structure of Sedimentary Rocks:
 Stratification (layered arrangement),
 Lamination (lamination is similar to stratification but it is very thin
in thickness usually < 1cm; lamination is a characteristic of a fine-
grained sedimentary rock e.g. shale),
 Cross-bedding (the above and below layers are not parallel to
each other; types of cross-bedding are:
(i) Tabular (when beddings are parallel to each other)
(ii) Lenticular (extreme irregularity in shape of beddings) and
(iii) Wedge Shaped (entangled wedge-shaped beddings)
 SEDIMENTARY ROCKS
 Graded Bedding:  Sediments in beddings are sorted and
arranged according to Grain Size – coarsest being at the bottom
and finest being at the top – Gravity Settling in the standing
water
Surfacial Marks of Sedimentary Rocks: Mud Cracks (in fine-
grained sedimentary rocks, there are irregular cracks due to
drying of mud)
 Rain Prints (conical pitting)  Ripple Marks
Classification of Sedimentary Rocks:
Classified on the basis of  Mineralogical Constituents
 Environment of Deposition  Mode of Formation, and
 Textural and Structural Features
For Practical Purpose, all the sedimentary rocks are classified into
two groups:
(1) Clastic
(2) (2) Non-clastic Rocks
 SEDIMENTARY ROCKS
(1) Clastic Rocks: Following Wentworth Scale of Particle Size
of Sedimentary Clastic Rocks is mostly used by the
Sedimentologists for the grading of Clastic Sediments
 Wentworth Scale (Named after a US Sedimentologist
C. K. Wentworth in 1912): Based on the particle size only,
irrespective of the other characteristics of the sediments
(a) Gravel: When the Grain Size > 2 mm
(i) Boulder: Grain Size > 256 mm (10 inches)
(ii) Cobble: Grain Size 16 to 256 mm
(iii) Pebble: Grain Size 4 to 16 mm
(iv) Granule: Grains size 2 to 4 mm
(b) Sand: Grain Size 1/16 mm to 2 mm. Sand is further sub-
divided into three groups:
(ii) Course-grained: ½ mm to 2 mm
(ii) Medium-grained: ¼ mm to ½ mm
(iii) Fine-grained: 1/16 mm to ¼ mm
 SEDIMENTARY ROCKS
(c) Silt: 1/256 mm to 1/16 mm. They are further sub-divided into
Course-grained, Medium-grained and Fine-grained. The Silt is the
major constituent of soil and rock: Shale
(d) Clay: Finer than 1/256 mm. It is major constituent of soils and
rocks: Clay-stone and Mud-stone
 Finer clays are known as Mud (particle size is mostly around 1
Micrometer {10-6 m} – also known as Micron) and extremely fine /
the finest clays are known as Colloid (particle size is mostly
around 1 Nanometer {10-9 m} in particle size)
 Mud and Colloid are the clay-particles usually suspended in
the fine to thick aqueous solution of clay
 SEDIMENTARY ROCKS
Non-clastic Rocks: These are also known as Non-detrital
Rocks
 These are homogeneous in nature
 Fine-grained in particle size and
 Varying in chemical composition. These are further sub-
divided into:
(i) Chemically Formed Non-clastic Rocks
(ii) Ogranically Formed Non-clastic Rocks
(ii) Chemically Formed Non-clastic Rocks:
(a) Siliceous Rocks: Silica is the major constituent, examples are
Flint, Chert and Jasper (an opaque cryptocrystalline variety of
quartz)
 SEDIMENTARY ROCKS
(b) Carbonate Rocks: – CO3 is the major constituent;
examples are limestone (CaCO3), dolomite [CaMg(CO3)2],
magnesite (MgCO3) and siderite (FeCO3)
(c) Ferruginous Rocks: Oxides and hydroxides of iron are the
major constituents; examples are limestone, dolomite, magnesite
and siderite
(d) Phosphatic Rocks: Phosphoric acid is the major constituent
together with the other phosphate compounds
(e) Evaporites: It is a distinct class of Sedimentary Rocks formed
by the process of Evaporation; examples are Rock-Salt (Halite),
Gypsum, Borate, Anhydrite, Rock-Sulfur and Rock-Nitrate
(ii) Ogranically Formed Non-clastic Rocks: Sedimentary Rocks
formed from the remains of the previously living organisms:
animals and plants. These organisms might have contributed
either directly or indirectly
 SEDIMENTARY ROCKS
(a) Carbonate Rocks: Mostly formed from the shells and
skeletons of marine organisms
(b) Carbonaceous Rocks: Rich in isolated Carbon; formed from
the plant life e.g. Coal
(c) Ferruginous Rocks: Iron carbonate is the major constituent
 In fresh water lakes, some bacteria reduce the Ferric Oxide to
Ferrous Oxide which finally precipitates as Iron Carbonate
(d) Phosphatic Rocks: Excretion i.e. dropping of some birds
(which eat certain fish) contains high contents of phosphate
compounds – when accumulated over a period of time, forms a
deposit known as Guano which is rich in Phosphate
 METAMORPHIC ROCKS
 If there is no change in the physical properties or chemical
composition or constitution of a rock, then that rock is (said to be) in
equilibrium with its physical and chemical environment
 The Three Major Factors which play important role in forming a
Metamorphic Rock are: High Pressure, High Temperature and
Chemically Active Fluids
 When there is change in any of the above given parameters around a
rock, then there must be a change takes place in the nature of that
rock too
 The Changed Rock is known as Metamorphic Rock – now it will be
under new set of conditions till there is further change in the
surrounding conditions
Factors of Metamorphism: Metamorphic changes in the rock are
primarily due the Three Main Factors known as Agents of
Metamorphism and the three environments associated with the said
three Factors are known as Met. Environments – The Metamorphic
Changes are dominant when these factors operate collectively and
enormously
 METAMORPHIC ROCKS
 Temperature: Rocks are made up of various minerals which
are usually stable below or up to the temperature of 200 OC –
when the temperature surrounding a rock rises above the said
temperature, then then the nature of constituent minerals also
changes accordingly and hence the nature of that rock
 Unmetamorphosed pre-existing rock is known as Protolith – it
may be an igneous rock, sedimentary rock or another
metamorphic rock
 Metamorphism takes place at a temperature higher than 200
O
C, usually around 1000 OC and pressure around 1,500 bars (1
Bar = 14.5 psi = 100 KPa)
 Metamorphic rocks are usually formed from Tectonic Processes
mostly from Continental Collision [it is a phenomenon of Plate
Tectonics (a theory that describes the movement of lithosphere –
considered as whole the Crust: 100 km and upper most mantle:
100 km below the Crust) of earth that occurs at Convergent
Boundaries]
 METAMORPHIC ROCKS
 Convergent Boundary is also known as Destructive Plate
Boundary; it is an actively deforming region where two (or
more) tectonic plates or fragments of lithosphere move toward
each other and collide. As a result of pressure, friction, and hot
molten material of the colliding tectonic plates (usually occurring
in Asthenosphere – uppermost part of mantle situated between
the depth of 100 to 200 km from the earth surface),
earthquakes and volcanoes take place near convergent
boundaries
 A Met. Rock is exposed to the surface by: (i) Erosion (ii)
Tectonic Uplift
 Common examples of metamorphic rocks: Gneiss (a Met.
Rock of Granite), Slate (a Met. Rock of Shale), Marble (a Met.
Rock of limestone or dolomite), Schist (a Met. Rock of
micaceous ign. rock – an Al. Sil. Ign. Rock), and Quartzite (a
Met. Rock of quartz-sandstone)
Tectonic Plates
 METAMORPHIC ROCKS
 Minerals of Met. Rocks: These are mainly the Metamorphic
Minerals also known as Index Minerals – the minerals which are
formed in the process of metamorphism only E.g: Sillimanite
(an Al.Sil. mineral), Kyanite (blue sil. mineral), Staurolite (a
complicated bimetallic mineral of Al. Sil. containing O4 and O6),
Andalusite (an Al. Sil. mineral containing O5) and Garnet (a well
known reddish silicate mineral)
 Pre-existing Minerals present in Met. Rocks are: olivine,
pyroxene, amphibole, mica, feldspar and quartz – these
minerals are mainly formed during the formation of usually
Volcanic Igneous Rocks by the process of crystallization. These
minerals are highly stable at high pressure and temperature
and remain chemically unchanged too in whole the process of
metamorphism
 Change in Particle Size: The change in particle size of a rock
during metamorphism is called Recrystallization
 METAMORPHIC ROCKS
 Example: small calcite crystals in the sedimentary rock of
limestone and chalk change into larger crystals in the
metamorphic rock marble or in metamorphosed sandstone
 Recrystallization of the original quartz-sand grains results in
compact quartzite and very compact quartzite known as Meta-
quartzite, in which the larger quartz crystals are interlocked with
each other
 Both high temperature and pressure contribute to
recrystallization
 Extremely high temperature causes the atomic bonds to break
and the atoms move and form new bonds with the other atoms
creating new minerals with entirely different chemical
composition and constituents and different crystalline structures
– the process is known as Neo-crystallization
 METAMORPHIC ROCKS
 In Recrystalizaion, the atoms and ions in solid crystals move
across, thus changing only the set up of the crystals, while high
pressure causes the solution of crystals within the rock to react
with each other
 Foliation: Layering in Met. Rocks is called Foliation – it occurs
when a rock is shortened along one axis during re-
crystallization
 Foliation causes the platy or elongated crystals of minerals, such
as mica (platy) or chlorite (elongated) to rotate in such a manner
that their longer axes are perpendicular to the orientation of
shortening. This results in banding and foliation; banding shows
the colours of the minerals that formed them and foliation is
exhibited in form of layering of the minerals in a met. rock –
Marble is an example of Banded Met. Rock and Slate is the
example of Foliated Met. Rock
 Foliated rock is the product of Differential Stresses that deform the
rock in one plane, creating a plane of cleavage
 METAMORPHIC ROCKS
 Another important mechanism of metamorphism is: Chemical
Reactions which occur between the minerals without melting
them. In the process, atoms are exchanged between the
minerals, thus entirely new minerals are formed
 Metasomatism is a drastic change in the bulk chemical
composition of a met. rock occurs during the processes of
metamorphism. It is due to the introduction of too many
chemical compounds from the surrounding rocks. Water may
transport the plenty of chemicals over great distances in short
time
 Types of Metamorphism: (1) Regional Metamorphism:
Regional or Barrovian Metamorphism covers the continental crust
mainly associated with mountain-ranges. The collision of two
continental plates or island arcs (chain of islands comprising
volcanoes in arch-shaped alignment located close to a boundary of
tectonic plates) with the continental plates produce the enormous
compressional forces required for the regional metamorphism
Contact Metamorphism
Contact Metamorphism
 METAMORPHIC ROCKS
 These mountains are later eroded exposing the intensely
deformed rocks to the surface
(2) Contact Metamorphism: Type of metamorphism that takes
place by coming in contact of either very hot magma or very hot
boiling fluids usually the water, with the cooler country rock
(i) Thermal Metamorphism: When magma is intruded into the
surrounding rock (country rock) – the temperatures are
highest at this boundary (of the reacting magma and country
rock) and decrease with distance from it
 The area surrounding the intrusion where the contact
metamorphism effects are present is called the Metamorphic
Aureole – Contact Metamorphic Rocks are usually known as
Hornfels. Rocks formed by contact metamorphism may not
exhibit the sign of strong deformation and are often fine-
grained in nature
 METAMORPHIC ROCKS
 Contact Metamorphism:
(ii) Hydrothermal Metamorphism: It is the result of interaction of
a rock with extremely high-temperature fluids usually the water
containing variable chemical constitution and composition. The
difference in chemical composition of the pre-existing country
rock and the invading fluid initiate a set of metamorphic and
metasomatic reactions. The hydrothermal fluid may be
magmatic, circulating deep ground water or oceanic water
(3) Shock Metamorphism (also known as Impact
Metamorphism): This kind of metamorphism occurs when an
extraterrestrial object e.g. meteorite (a solid piece of debris
entering from the outer space) collides with the Earth surface
or during an enormous and violent volcanic eruption. This
metamorphism is characterized by ultrahigh pressure
condition. E.g. is Coesite (a bluish polymorphous form of SiO2)
 METAMORPHIC ROCKS
(4) Dynamic Metamorphism: It is associated with the zones of
high to moderate strain such as Fault Zones
 The textures of dynamic metamorphic zones are dependent on
the met. environment where they were formed – the
temperature and confining pressure determine the
Deformation Mechanism. Within the depths less than 5 km,
dynamic metamorphism is usually not produced because the
enormous confining pressure is too low. Instead, a zone of
breccia (a rock composed of broken fragments of various
minerals cemented together with fine-grained matrix (e.g.
ground-mass) or cataclasite (a cataclastic rock formed during
faulting) is established with the pre-existing rock ground and
broken into irregular fragments
 METAMORPHIC ROCKS
 Cataclasis: It is a process of fracturing, crushing or grinding of
a rock (or mineral) known as Comminution i.e. reduction in
size of the fragments of pre-existing rocks and then formation
into angular fragments; this texture known as Cataclastic
Texture; it mostly takes place in dynamic metamorphic zones
(5) Dynamo-thermal Metamorphism: It a form of regional
metamorphism that acts on the rocks caught between the two
converging plates and is caused by the pressure directed from
the said plates which causes some of the rocks to rise and
others to sink. The rocks which fall, experience further
dynamo-thermal metamorphism, now caused by the heat
provided by the earth's interior and the pressure by the
overlying rocks
 METAMORPHIC ROCKS
 Metamorphic Processes:
(i) Re-crystallization Already mentioned
(ii) Neo-crystallization Already mentioned
(iii) Phase Change: Creating new minerals with the same
chemical formula as that of the protolith; it involves the
rearrangement of the atoms in the crystals of the protolith –
thus changing the physical properties only
(iv) Pressure Solution: It is a metamorphic process that requires
a rock (protolith) to be under strong pressure from one
direction and presence of extremely hot water around the
rock. During this process, minerals of the protolith dissolve,
diffuse in the water and precipitate elsewhere. Hence there is
change in chemical and mineral composition and constitution
 METAMORPHIC ROCKS
(v) Plastic Deformation: In plastic deformation, high pressure is
applied to protolith which causes it to shear or bend, but not
break. In order this to happen, temperature must be high
enough that brittle fractures do not occur
(vi) Prograde and Retrograde Metamorphism: Prograde
metamorphism involves the change of mineral assembling with
the increase in temperature and pressure. These are solid state
dehydration reactions, which involve the loss of volatile
substances such as water or carbon dioxide  Prograde
metamorphism results in rock characteristics of having attained
the maximum pressure and temperature. Such met. rocks do not
undergo further change when they are brought to the surface
 Retrograde metamorphism involves the reconstitution of a rock via
revolatilisation under the decreasing temperature (and usually
pressure), allowing the mineral assembly formed in prograde
metamorphism revert to more stable formation at less extreme
conditions
 METAMORPHIC ROCKS
 Texture of Metamorphic Rocks:
(i) Slaty: Showing texture of Slate – texture of a rock like thin
leaves or plates; it includes Slate and Phyllite (a green, grey or
red metamorphic rock rich in mica derived from a shale)
(ii) Schistose: Showing the texture of Schist: texture of medium-
grained to coarse-grained metamorphic rocks composed of
laminated, often flaky parallel layers chiefly of micaceous
minerals
(iii) Gneissose: Showing the texture of Gneiss: characterized by the
texture of alternating darker and lighter coloured bands called
Gneistic Bands
(iv) Granoblastic: Showing the texture of Granulite: texture of the
grains visible to the naked eye, sutured boundaries and almost
equidimensional grains
(v) Hornfelsic: Showing the texture of Hornfels: massive, hard,
splintery and banded texture
 Slaty Schistose Gneissose

Granoblastic Schistose Foliation

Banded Rock Hornfelsic

Cataclastic
 METAMORPHIC ROCKS
 Structural Features of Metamorphic Rocks:
(i) Rock Cleavage: Property of a met. rock to be split along certain
directions yielding (more or less) parallel and smooth surfaces
(ii) Schistosity: Property of a met. rock showing the thin parallel
loose layering
(iii) Foliation: Already mentioned
 Grades of Metamorphism and Metamorphic Rocks:
(i) Low Grade: When the Index Minerals of a met. rock are formed
at a temperature between 200 OC to 400 OC, e. g. laumonite (CaAlSil.
with O6) and lawsonite (CaAlSil. with O 7)
(ii) Medium Grade: When the Index Minerals of a met. rock are
formed at a temperature between 400 OC to 650 OC, e. g. staurolite
(FeAlSil. with OH) and cordierite (MgFeAlSil.)
(iii) High Grade: When the Index Minerals of a met. rock are formed
at a temperature greater than 650 OC, e. g. hypersthene (a group of
orthorhombic pyroxene)
 METAMORPHIC ROCKS
 Metamorphic Facies: It is defined as a group of met. rocks
which are formed under the closely related met. environments
(as mentioned earlier), e.g. Green-Schist, Amphibolite,
Granulite, Zeolite, Pyroxene-hornfels, etc