FIBER OPTICS

OPTICAL FIBERS& APPLICATIONS

 Step index fiber

 Graded index fiber

 Attenuation
 INTRODUCTION
 The phenomenon of total internal reflections,responscible for
guiding of light in optical fibers,has been known since
1854.although glass fibers were made in the 1920s,their use
became practical only in the 1950s,when the use of a cladding layer
led to considerable improvement in their guiding characteristics.
 Before 1970,optical fibers were used mainly for medical imaging
over short distances.Their use for communication purposes was
considered impractical because of high losses(-1000db per k.m).
However, the situation changed drastically in 1970 when,folling an
earlier suggestion,the loss of optical fibers was reduced to below
20db/k.m.further process resulted by 1979 in a loss of only
0.2db/k.m near the 1.55Micro merers spectral region.
 The availability of low loss fibers led to a revolution in the field of
lightwave technology and started the era of fiber-optic
communications.
 Geometrical-Optic Description

 In its simplest form an optical fiber consists of a

cylindrical core of silica glass surrounded by a
cladding whose refractive index is lower than that of
the core.Because of an abrupt index change at the
core-cladding interface,such fibers are called step-
index fibers. In a different type of fiber, known as
graded-index fiber,the refractive index increases
gradually inside the core.Here the core radius a is
much larger than the light wavelength.
Figure 2.1 cross section and refractive index profile for step index and
graded index fibers
 Step-Index Fibers
Consider the geometry of Fig.2.2, where a ray making an angle Өi
with the fiber axis is incident at the core center. Because of
refraction at the fiber-air interface, the ray bends towards the
normal.The angle θr of the refracted ray is given by
n0 sin Өi= n1 sin θr ,
(2.1.1)
Where n1 and n0 are the refractive indices of the fiber core and
air,respectively. The refracted ray hits the core-cladding
interface and is refracted again.However, refraction is possible
only for an angle of incidence Ф such that sin Ф <n2 /n1,
(2.1.2)

where n2 is the cladding index, the ray experiences total

internal reflection at the core-cladding interface. Since such
reflections occur throughout the fiber length,all rays with Ф>Фc
remain confined to the fiber core. This is the basic mechanism
behind light confinement in optical fibers.
 One can use Eqs.(2.1.1) and (2.1.2) to find the maximum angle that
the incident ray should make with the fiber axis to remain confined
inside the core.Nothing that θr=π/2-Φc
n0sin θi=n1cosФc =(n12-n22) 1/2 (2.1.3)
In anology with lenses , n0 sinθi is known as the numerical
aperture(NA) of the fiber. It represents the light gathering capacity
of an optical fiber. For n1 identical equals to n2 the NA can be
approximated by

NA=n1(2Δ)1/2 , Δ=(n1- n2)/n1 , (2.1.4)

Where Δ is the fractional index change at the core-cladding
interface. Clearly, Δ should be made as large as possible in order to
couple maximum light into the fiber. However ,such fibers are not
useful for the purpose of optical communications because of a
phenomenon known as multipath dispersion or modal dispersion.

 Multipath dispersion can be understood by referring to Fig.2.2,
where different rays travel along paths of different lengths, As a
result, these rays disperse in time at the output end of the fiber
even if they were coincident at the input end and travelled at the
same speed inside the fiber. The shortest path occurs for θ i =0 and
is just equal to the fiber length L. The longest path occurs for θi
given by Eq.(2.1.3) and has a length L/sin Фc . By taking the velocity
of propagation V=C/n1 , the time delay is given by

ΔT=n1/c( L/ sin Фc -L) = L/c n12/n2 Δ (2.1.5)

The time delay between the two rays taking the shortest and
longest paths.The relation between B and Δt is

BΔT<1. B y using Eq.(2.1.5)

BL< n2/n12 c/Δ (2.1.6)

 Most fibers for communication applications are designed with
Δ<0.01
Two remarks are in order concerning the validity of Eq.(2.1.6) ,
First , it is obtained by considering only rays that pass through the
fiber axis after each total internal reflection. Such rays are called
meridional rays. In general, the fiber also supports skew rays . Skew
rays scatter out of the core at bends.

Graded-Index Fibers
The refractive index of the core in graded-index fibers is not
constant but decreases gradually from its maximum value n1 at the
core center to its minimum value n2 at the core-cladding interface.
Most graded-index are designed to have a nearly quadratic decrease
and are analyzed by using α-profile ,given by

n(ρ)={ n1[1-Δ(ρ/a)α]; ρ<a ,

n(ρ)={n1(1-Δ)=n2 ; Ρ>=a ,
Where a is the core radious . The parameter α determines
the index profile .A step index profile. A step index profile is
approached in the limit of large α. A perabolic index fiber corresponds
to α=2.

It is easy to understand qualitatively why intermodal or multipath

dispersion is reduced for graded-index fibers. Fig.2.3 shows
schematically paths for three different rays . Similar to the case of
step-index fibers , the path is longer for more oblique rays. However ,
the ray velocity changes along the path because of variations in the
refractive index. More specifically , the ray propagation along the fiber
axis takes the shortest path but travels most slowly as the index is
largest along this path. Oblique rays have a large part of their path in
a medium of lower refractive index , where they travel faster.It is
therefore possible for all rays to arrive together at the fiber output by a
suitable choice of the refractive index profile.
Parabolic-index profile leads to nondispersive pulse
propagation
d2ρ/dz2=1/n dn/dρ (2.1.8)
Where ρ is the radial distance of the ray from the axis.By
using Eq.(2.1.7) for ρ<a with α=2 Eq.(2.1.8)reduces to
an equation of harmonic oscillator and has the general
solution
ρ=ρ0cos(pz)+(ρ0’/p)sin(pz) ,
Where p=(2Δ/a2)1/2 and ρ0 and ρ0’ are the position and the
direction of the input ray. Z=2mπ/p
The minimum dispersion occurs for α=2(1-Δ) and depends
on Δ as
ΔT/L=n1Δ2/8c
The limited bitrate-distance product is BL<8c/n1Δ2
 Fiber Losses
Attenuation Coefficient
Average optical power p of a bit stream propagating inside an optical fiber are
governed by Beer’s law
dp/dz= -αp
Where α is the attenuation coieffcient.
If pin is the power launched at the input end of a fiber of length L, the output power Pout is
given by
pout = Pin exp(-αL)
It is customary to express α in units of dB/km by using the relation
α(dB/km) = -10/L log10(Pout / Pin ) =4.343α.
Fiber losses depends on the wavelength of transmitted light.
Material Losses
Absorption by material . This includes absorption due to the light interacting with the
molecular structure of the material , as well as because of material impurities. The
loss due to the atomic structure of the material itself is relatively small. Loss due to
impurities can be reduced by better manufacturing processes. The largest loss is
caused by OH ions . These can not be sufficiently reduced.The OH impurity causes
loss for particular wave length bands.
Light Scattering
The light scattered by the molecules of the material by structural imperfections
and impurities. When light is scattered by an Obstruction , the result is
power loss.

 “Obstruction” refers to density variations in the material that result in

changes in refractive index.
Waveguide and Micro bend Losses
Losses caused by imperfections and deformations of the fiber structure.
Structural variations in the fiber or fiber deformation , cause
radiation of light away from the fiber .
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