Strength of Ships-I

MODULE I
SEM V

1 Dept. of NASB,SNGCE
 CONTENTS

 Introduction to Strength of Ships-

 List of Forces Acting on a Ship.
 Distortion of Ship Structure.
 Function of Ship Structure.
 Design Procedure of Ship Structure.
 Modes of Failure.
 Idealization of Ship as Hull Girder.

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 STRENGTH: Ability to withstand stress.

3 Dept. of NASB,SNGCE
 Ship Hull
The function of ship hull is to provide
STRENGTH, STIFFNESS and
WATERTIGHT INTEGRITY.
 Ship Hull
To provide Strength means: to resist
weight, buoyancy and environmental
loads (due to waves and winds).
 Ship Hull
To provide Strength means: to resist
weight, buoyancy and environmental
loads (due to waves and winds).
During this process, hull is strained and
stresses are developed. When stresses
exceed material strength, hull fails.
 Ship Hull
To provide Stiffness means: to resist
deflections so as to allow ship/equipment
to function properly.
 Ship Hull

To provide watertight integrity means:

to provide sufficient buoyancy to stay afloat
holding the cargo and other weights.
 Unique Aspects of Ship Structures

 Ships are BIG!

 Three dimensional complex shape.
 Multi-Purpose Support Structure and
Skin.
 Ships see a variety of dynamic and
random loads.
 Ships operate in a wide variety of
environments.

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 Nature of Ship Structure
 The size and principal characteristics of a new ship
are determined primarily by its mission or intended
service.
 In addition to basic functional considerations, there
are requirements such as
Stability
low resistance
high propulsive efficiency
navigational limitations on draft or beam all of which
influence the choice of dimensions and form.

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  Within these and other basic constraints, the
ship’s structure must be designed to sustain all of
the loads expected to arise in its seagoing
environment.
 As a result, a ship’s structure possesses certain
distinctive features not found in other man-made
structures.
 In contrast to land-based structures, the ship does
not rest on a fixed foundation.
 But derives its entire support from buoyant
pressures exerted by a dynamic and ever
changing fluid environment.
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  Among the most important distinguishing
characteristics of ship structures are the
 Size.
 Complexity.
 Multiplicity of function of structural components.
 The random or probabilistic nature of the loads imposed.
 The uncertainties inherent in our ability to predict the
response of the structure to those loads.
 The methods of analysis employed by the naval
architect in designing and evaluating the structure
of a ship must be selected with these
characteristics in mind.
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 Size and Complexity of Ships
 Size and the requirement for mobility exert
strong influences on the structural arrangement
and design.
 Ships are among the most complex of structures
and this is due in part to their mobility.
 Good resistance and propulsive characteristics
dictate that the external surface of the hull or
shell must be a complex three-dimensional
curved surface.

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  The shell plating is one of the major strength
members the structural configuration may not
always be chosen solely on the basis of optimum
structural performance.
 The structural behavior of the many
geometrically complex members that constitute a
ship’s hull is difficult to analyze.
 The construction of the vessel may be
complicated because there are few members
having simple shapes.

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 Function of Ship Structural
Components.
 The structural components of a ship are frequently
designed to perform a multiplicity of functions in
addition to that of providing the structural integrity
of the ship.
 Shell plating serves not only as the principal
strength member but also as a watertight envelope
of the ship, having a shape that provides adequate
stability against capsizing, low resistance to forward
motion, acceptable controllability, and good
propulsive characteristics.
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  Many strength members serve dual functions.
 Bulkheads that contribute substantially to the
strength of the hull may also serve as liquid-tight
boundaries of internal compartments.
 Their locations are dictated by the required tank
volume or subdivision requirements.
 The configuration of structural decks is usually
governed by the arrangement of internal spaces.
 But they may be called upon to resist local
distributed and concentrated loads, as well as
contributing to longitudinal and transverse strength.
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  An important characteristic of a ship structure is its
composition of numerous stiffened plate panels.
 Some plane and some curved, which make up the
side and bottom shell, the decks, and the
bulkheads.
 Therefore, much of the effort expended in ship
structural analysis is concerned with predicting the
performance of individual stiffened panels and the
interactions between adjoining panels.

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1) The shell plating
 The principal strength member.
 A watertight envelope of the ship.
2) Bulkheads
 Contributing substantially to the strength of the
hull.
 Serving as liquid-tight boundaries of internal
compartments.
Decks
 Governed by the arrangement of internal spaces.
 Resisting local distributed and concentrated
loads (Local strength).
 Contributing to longitudinal and transverse
strength.
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 Probabilistic Nature of Ship’s
Structural Loads

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 INTRODUCTION
 The subject of Ship Strength deals with the
assessment of the ship's structural design to withstand
the service loads she will confront during her
lifetime.
 It is of profound importance for the design and
usability of the ship.
 During the design phase of the ship, the naval
architect has to account for the type and service
conditions of the ship under consideration in order to
engineer its structural arrangement accordingly.
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  The engineer has to compromise conflicting
requirements.
 For seagoing ships, this conflict occurs usually
between service requirements, targeted service
conditions, ship life cycle and structural strength.
 For example, a crude oil tanker has to have the least
structural weight in order to increase profitability,
sail under any conditions, survive on standard
preventive maintenance for 30 years and yet have a
structure that can deliver this.
 For a coast liner on the other hand, requirements
may include among others high speed and increased
passenger safety.
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 INTRODUCTION
 The size and principal characteristics of a ship are
determined primarily by its mission, intended
service, and cost.
 In addition to basic functional considerations there
are requirements such as stability, low resistance,
high propulsive efficiency, good sea-keeping etc.
 The ship's structure must be designed, within the
basic constraints, to sustain all the loads expected
to arise in its seagoing environment.
 Ship derives its entire support from buoyant
pressures exerted by a dynamic and ever changing
ocean environment.
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  The loads that the ship structure must be designed
to withstand have many sources.
 There are static components which consist
principally of the weight and buoyancy of the ship
in calm waters.
 There are dynamic components caused by wave
induced motions of the ship, and by slamming in
waves, as well as vibratory loads by the propeller
and machinery, all of which are of different
frequency ranges.

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  Additionally, the structural arrangement has to
provide for convenience and usability of the ship.
 The compartmentation of the cargo and ballast area
of the ship has to comply with strength criteria,
pump/piping availability, ship stability and operations
requirements.
 From the strength point of view, non-uniform loading
conditions might result in complex loads on the
structure, including transverse shear, bending and
torsion.
 But even more important is that half-filled tanks, may
result in excessive sloshing, which in turn can pose a
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considerable
Dept. of NASB,SNGCEsafety thread.
  Apart from this "high level" structural design
aspects, the structural arrangement has to provide
for other usability issues that are more local.
 A ship comprises a constellation of different pieces
of machinery: engines, power units, turbines,
pumps, cranes, derricks, mooring equipment and so
on.
 The structural arrangement must consider all these
local loads and foresee for adequate foundation and
support.

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  Special types of craft might - and probably will -
need much more elaboration at the design stage.
 Ships, and in particular large ones, are hollow
structures composed of very small elements.
 Consider the midship section of a large double hull
tanker: it might be 40 m in breadth and 20 m in
depth.
 However, the actual area of the elements
comprising the midship section, might be less than
5m2 .
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 FORCES ACTING ON SHIP

It is convenient to divide the loads acting on

the ship structure into two main categories :
 Static Force
 Dynamic Force

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Loads Acting on Ship Structures
It is convenient to divide the loads acting on the
ship structure into four categories.
 Static Loads
 Dynamic Loads.
 Low-frequency dynamic loads.
 High-frequency dynamic oads.
 Impact Loads
 Operational Loads.
Dept. of NASB,SNGCE 28
1) Static loads
 Loads that change only when the total weight
of the ship changes;

a. Loading or discharge of cargo.

b. Consumption of fuel

c. Modification to the ship itself

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 COMPONENTS OF STATIC LOAD
 Weight of the ship and its contents.
 Static buoyancy of the ship at rest or moving.
 Thermal loads resulting from nonlinear
temperature gradients within the hull.
 Concentrated loads caused by dry docking and
grounding.

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Low-frequency dynamic loads
 Loads that vary in time with periods ranging from
a few seconds to several minutes.
 Therefore occur at frequencies that are sufficiently
low compared to the frequencies of vibratory
response of the hull and its parts.
 There won’t be any appreciable resonant
amplification of the stresses induced in the
structure.
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• Wave-induced hull pressure variations.
• Hull pressure variations caused by
oscillatory ship motions.
• Inertial reactions resulting from the
acceleration of the mass of the ship and its
contents.

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A ship’s axes and degrees of freedom
Dept. of NASB,SNGCE 33
1.4.3 High-frequency dynamic loads
Time-varying loads of sufficiently
high frequency that they may induce
vibratory response of the ship
structure. Probably loads with small
magnitudes can give rise to large
stresses and deflections due to
resonant amplification.
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• Hydrodynamic loads induced by
propulsive devices on hull or appendages.
• Loads imparted to the hull by
reciprocating or unbalanced rotating
machinery.
• Hydroelastic loads resulting from
interaction of appendages with the flow
past the ship.
Dept. of NASB,SNGCE 35
1.4.4 Impact loads
Loads resulting from slamming or wave
impact on the forefoot, bow flare and
other parts of the hull structure,
including the effects of green water on
deck.

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 STATIC FORCES
 Static loads are loads that change only when the
weight of the ship or its weight distribution
changes. These include:

1. Weight of the ship and its contents.

2. Static buoyancy of the ship at rest or moving.
3. Thermal loads resulting from temperature
gradients within the hull.
4. Concentrated loads caused by dry docking or
grounding.
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  Consider a ship floating in calm water.
 Two different forces will be acting upon it along
its length.

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  The weight of the ship and its contents will be
acting vertically downwards.
 The buoyancy of vertical component of
hydrostatic pressure will be acting upwards.
 In total, the two forces exactly equal and
balance one another such that the ship floats at
a particular draft.
 The centre of buoyancy force and the centre of
the weight will be vertically in line.

39 Dept. of NASB,SNGCE
 DYNAMIC FORCES
 Dynamic loads are loads that vary in time with
periods ranging from a few seconds to several
minutes.
 They may also be time varying loads of
sufficiently high frequency that may induce
vibratory response of the ship structure

40 Dept. of NASB,SNGCE
 These can be broken dowin into the following
components:
 Wave induced hull pressure variations.
 Hull pressure variations caused by transient
ship motions.
 Inertial reactions resulting from the
acceleration of the mass of the ship and its
contents.

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  Hydrodynamic loads induced by propulsive
devices.
 Loads imparted to the hull by reciprocating or
unbalanced machinery.
 Hydro elastic loads resulting from interaction
of appendages with the flow past the ship.
 Wave induced loads due primarily to short
waves whose frequency of encounter overlaps
the lower natural frequencies of hull vibration,
called springing.

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  A ship is free to move with 6 degrees of
freedom, 3 linear and 3 rotational.
 The various forces acting on a ship are
constantly varying in degree and frequency.
 Consider a ship moving along waves.
 Distribution of buoyancy will vary as a result of
the waves.
 The movement of the ship will also introduce
dynamic forces.
 The ship’s structure will be subjected to
constantly fluctuating stresses as waves move
along the ship’s length.
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Design Philosophy and Procedure
 The issue of structural design involves the
selection of
 material types
 framing forms (longitudinal framing, transverse
framing, mixed framing)
 frame spacing
 frame and stiffener sizes
 plating thickness.

Dept. of NASB,SNGCE 44
 Development of the initial configuration
and scantlings.
 Knowledge
 Experience
 Imagination
 Intuition
 Creativity
 Analysis of the performance of the
assumed design
 Loads and responses
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 Comparison with performance criteria
 Safety
 Serviceability
 Durability
 Technology
 Economy
 Redesign the structure by changing both the
configuration and scantlings in such a way as
to effect an improvement.
 Repeat the above as necessary to approach an
optimum.
Dept. of NASB,SNGCE 46
 Main Contents of Structural Strength
Calculation
1) The determination of loads
Magnitudes
Properties
2) The responses of the structure (Load effects)
 Stresses
 buckling loads
 deflections
3) Strength criteria
 Allowable stresses or permissible stresses
 Allowable deflections or permissible stresses
Dept. of NASB,SNGCE 47
 Design Philosophy and Procedure
 The development of completely rational structural
design procedures is being pursued in naval
architecture.
 Using such procedures, a set of requirements or
criteria to be met by the structure should first be
formulated.
 Then through the application of fundamental
reasoning and mathematical analysis, augmented
by the introduction of certain empirical
information, it should be possible to arrive at a
structural configuration and a set of scantlings
48 that
Dept. simultaneously meet all the criteria.
of NASB,SNGCE
  The original set of requirements imposed upon
the ship will include the functional requirements
of the owner and, in addition, institutional
requirements such as those established by
government and other regulatory bodies
concerned with:
 Safety
 Navigation
 Pollution prevention
 Tonnage admeasurement
 Labor standards.
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  The problem of structural design then consists
of the selection of;
material types
frame spacing
frame and stiffener sizes
plate thickness etc.

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  At this point, to select the criteria to be satisfied by
the structural components of the ship, the designer
must rely on either empirical criteria, including
factors of safety and allowable stresses.
 The term synthesis, which is defined as the putting
together of parts or elements so as to form a
whole, is often applied to the process of ship
structural design.
 An additional element is needed to complete the
design synthesis: finding the optimal combination
of the various elements.
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  It is usually impossible to achieve an optimum solution
in a single set of calculations.
Due to the complexity of ship structures
The probabilistic nature of available information.
 Instead, some sort of iterative procedure must be
employed.
 The traditional method of ship structural design,
involving the extrapolation of previous experience.
 The construction and operational experience of
previous ships form essential steps.
 In each new design, the naval architect considers this
past experience and modifies the new design intuitively
to achieve an improved configuration.
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  Even when the most advanced methods are used, much
of structural design consists of a stepwise process in
which the designer develops a structural configuration
on the basis of experience, intuition, and imagination,
then performs an analysis of that structure to evaluate its
performance.
 If necessary, the scantlings are revised until the design
criteria are met.
 The resulting configuration is then modified in some
way that is expected to lead to an improvement in
performance or cost.
 The analysis is then repeated to re-ensure that the
improved configuration meets the design criteria.
53 Dept. of NASB,SNGCE
 In summary, five key steps can be identified to
characterize the structural design process, whether
it be intuitive or mathematically rigorous:

1) Development of the initial configuration and

scantlings.
2) Analysis of the performance of the assumed
design.
3) Comparison with performance criteria.
4) Redesign the structure by changing both the
configuration and scantlings in such a way as to
effect an improvement.
5) Repeat the above as necessary to approach an
54 Dept. ofoptimum.
NASB,SNGCE
55 Dept. of NASB,SNGCE
  Analysis refers to stress and strength assessment
of the structure.
 Analysis requires information on loads and needs
an initial structural scantling design.
 Output of the structural analysis is the structural
response defined in terms of stresses, deflections
and strength.
 Then, the estimated response is compared to the
design criteria.
 Results of this comparison as well as the
objective functions (weight, cost, etc.) will show
if updated (improved) scantlings are required.
56 Dept. of NASB,SNGCE
  Design for structure refers to the process
followed to select the initial structural
scantlings and to update these scantlings from
the early design stage (bidding) to the detailed
design stage (construction).
 To perform analysis, initial design is needed
and analysis is required to design.

57 Dept. of NASB,SNGCE
  Ship structural analysis and design is a matter of
compromises:
1) compromise between accuracy and the available
time to perform the design.
 This is particularly challenging at the preliminary
design stage. A 3D Finite Element Method (FEM)
analysis would be welcome but the time is not
available. For that reason, rule-based design or
simplified numerical analysis has to be performed.

58 Dept. of NASB,SNGCE
 1) To limit uncertainty and reduce conservatism in
design, it is important that the design methods are
accurate.
 On the other hand, simplicity is necessary to make
repeated design analyses efficient. The results from
complex analyses should be verified by simplified
methods to avoid errors and misinterpretation of
results.
2) Compromise between weight and cost or
compromise between least construction cost, and
global owner live cycle cost (including operational
cost, maintenance, etc.).
59 Dept. of NASB,SNGCE
  There are basically two schools to perform analysis and
design of ship structure.
1) Rule-based design.
 It is mainly based on the rules defined by the
classification societies.
 Ship structural design has been largely empirical,
based on accumulated experience and ship
performance, and expressed in the form of structural
design codes or rules published by the various ship
classification societies.
 These rules concern the loads, the strength and the
design criteria and provide simplified and easy-to-use
formulas for the structural dimensions, or “scantlings”
of a ship.
60 Dept. of NASB,SNGCE
 2) Rationally Based Structural Design
 It is based on direct analysis.
 There are several disadvantages to a completely
“rulebook” approach to design.
 First, the modes of structural failure are numerous,
complex, and interdependent.
 With such simplified formulas the margin against
failure remains unknown.
 Thus one cannot distinguish between structural
adequacy and over-adequacy.
 Most important, these formulas involve a number of
simplifying assumptions and can be used only within
certain limits. Outside of this range they may be
inaccurate.
Dept. of NASB,SNGCE
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 Distortion of Ship Structures
 Distortion due to hydrostatic pressure.
 Distortion while grounding.
 Distortion due to uneven water pressure.

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 Distortion due to hydrostatic
Pressure

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 Distortion while Docking

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 Distortion due to Uneven Water-
Pressure

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 Structural Failures

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  A good structural design aims to minimise the
probability of failure in the structures.
 The loading on the structure will give rise to
internal forces, that produces stresses, strains
and deflections.
 If the stresses and strains are sufficiently large,
the structures will fail.

67 Dept. of NASB,SNGCE
 Modes of Ship Strength and
Structural Failure
 Avoidance of structural failure is an overriding goal of
all structural designers.
 To achieve this, it is necessary for the naval architect
to be aware of the possible modes of failure and the
methods of predicting their occurrence.
 The types of failure that can occur in ship structures
are generally those that are characteristic of structures
made of stiffened plate panels assembled through the
use of welding.
68 Dept. of NASB,SNGCE
  Structural failure might occur in different degrees of
severity.
 At the low end of the failure scale, there may be small
cracks or deformations in minor structural members that
do not jeopardize the basic ability of the structure to
perform its function.
 Such minor failures may only have aesthetic
consequences.
 At the other end of the scale is total catastrophic collapse
of the structure, resulting in the loss of the ship.
 There are several different modes of failure between these
extremes that may reduce the load-carrying ability of
individual members or parts of the structure
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  Ship structure is highly redundant in nature, it avoids
total collapse.
 Such failures are normally detected and repaired
before their number and extent grow to the point of
endangering the ship.
 Four principal mechanisms are recognized to cause
most of the cases of ship structural failure, aside from
collision or grounding.

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 1) Buckling due to compressive or shear
instability.
2) Excessive tensile or compressive yield.
3) Fatigue cracking.
4) Brittle fracture.

71 Dept. of NASB,SNGCE
1. Tensile or Compressive Yield
 Slow plastic deformation of a structural component
due to an applied stress greater than yield stress.
 To avoid the yield, Safety factors are considered for
ship constructions.
 Safety factor = 2 or 3
(Maximum stress on ship hull will be 1/2 or 1/3 of
yield stress.)
72 Dept. of NASB,SNGCE
73 Dept. of NASB,SNGCE
 Tensile or Compressive Yield of the
Material
 The finite mode of failure occurs when the stress in
a structural member exceeds a level that results in a
permanent plastic deformation of the material of
which the member is constructed.
 This stress level is termed the material yield stress.
 At a somewhat higher stress, termed the ultimate
stress, fracture of the material occurs.

74 Dept. of NASB,SNGCE
2. Buckling
 Substantial dimension changes and sudden loss of
stiffness caused by the compression of long column
or plate.
 Buckling load on ship : cargo, waves, impact loads,
etc.
 Ex :
 Deck buckling : by sagging or hogging, loading on
deck.
 Side plate buckling : by waves, shock, groundings.
75
 Column
Dept. of
bucking
NASB,SNGCE
: by excessive axial loading
76 Dept. of NASB,SNGCE
 Instability failure of a structural member
loaded in compression may occur at a stress
level that is substantially lower than the
material yield stress.
 The load at which instability or buckling
occurs is a function of member geometry and
material modulus of elasticity rather than
material strength.
 Buckling is likely to occur on cross-stiffened
deck panels on a ship due to large
compressive stresses from longitudinal
bending.
Dept. of NASB,SNGCE 77
  The most common example of an instability
failure is the buckling of a simple column under
a compressive load.
 A plate in compression will also have a critical
buckling load whose value depends on the plate
thickness, lateral dimensions, edge support
conditions, and material modulus of elasticity.

78 Dept. of NASB,SNGCE
 3. Fatigue Failure
 The failure of a material from repeated application of
stress such as from vibration.
 Endurance limit : stress below which will not fail
from fatigue.
 Fatigue failure is affected by
 material composition (impurities, carbon contents,
internal defects).
 surface finish.
 environments (corrosion, salinities, sulfites,
moisture,..)
 geometry (sharp corners, discontinuities)
 workmanship (welding, fit-up)
79 Dept. of NASB,SNGCE
Fatigue generally creates cracks on the ship hull.
  Fatigue failure occurs as a result of a cumulative
effect in a structural member that is exposed to a
stress pattern alternating from tension to
compression through many cycles.
 Conceptually, each cycle of stress causes some
small but irreversible damage within the material.
 Two categories of fatigue damage are generally
recognized;
1) high-cycle fatigue.
2) low-cycle fatigue.

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  In high-cycle fatigue, failure is initiated in the form of
small cracks that grow slowly.
 High-cycle fatigue involves several millions of cycles
of relatively low stress (less than yield) and is typically
encountered in machine parts rotating at high speeds or
in structural components exposed to severe and
prolonged vibration.
 Low-cycle fatigue involves greater stress levels, up to
and beyond yield, that may result in cracks being
initiated after several thousand cycles.

81 Dept. of NASB,SNGCE
  The loading environment that is typical of ships
and ocean structures is of such a nature that the
cyclic stresses may be of a relatively low level
during the greater part of the time.
 Occasionally very high stress levels also caused by
storms.
 Exposure to such load conditions may result in the
occurrence of low-cycle fatigue cracks after an
interval of a few years.
 These cracks can grow to serious sizes if they are
not detected and repaired.
82 Dept. of NASB,SNGCE
 The Endurance Limit is the stress
below which the material will not
fail from fatigue.

Fatigue Characteristics

Dept. of NASB,SNGCE 83
 The most common consequence of fatigue in ships
is the development and propagation of cracks.

 If such cracks are not repaired, they can result in

catastrophic failure.

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 4. Brittle Fracture
 A sudden catastrophic failure with little or no
plastic deformation.
 Brittle fracture depends on
 Material: Low toughness & high carbon
material
 Temperature: Material operating below its
transition temperature.
 Geometry: Weak point for crack : sharp
corners, edges.
 Type / Rate of Loading: Tensile/impact
loadings are worse.
85 Dept. of NASB,SNGCE
86 Dept. of NASB,SNGCE
  A small crack suddenly begins to grow and travels
almost explosively through a major portion of the
structure.
 The originating crack is usually found to have started
as a result of poor design or manufacturing practice.
 The control of brittle fracture involves a combination
of;
design and inspection standards aimed at the
prevention of stress concentrations
and the selection of steels having a high degree of
notch toughness or resistance to the growth of
cracks, especially at low temperatures.
87 Dept. of NASB,SNGCE
 Material
 A material with low toughness is susceptible
to brittle fracture.
 Low carbon steels are less brittle than high
carbon steels.
 Temperature
 A material operating below its transition
temperature is much more susceptible to
brittle fracture because the toughness is very
low.
Dept. of NASB,SNGCE 88
 Geometry
 Cracks having sharp edges are worse than those
which are rounded.
 Even the orientation of the crack with respect to
the loading is a factor.
 Rate of Loading
 Impact loads are more likely to cause brittle
fracture than loads applied gradually and
smoothly.
Dept. of NASB,SNGCE 89
90 Dept. of NASB,SNGCE
 5. Creep

 The slow plastic deformation of material due to

continuously applied stresses that are below its
yield stress.
 Creep is not usually a concern in ship structures.

91 Dept. of NASB,SNGCE
  In designing the ship structure, the analysis phase is
concerned with the prediction of the magnitude of the
stresses and deflections that are developed in the
structural members.
 Many of the failure mechanisms, particularly those that
determine the ultimate strength and total collapse of the
structure, involve nonlinear material and structural
behavior.
 After performing an analysis, the adequacy or
inadequacy of the member or the entire ship structure
must then be judged through comparison with some
type of criterion of performance.
 Quality control during construction and in-service
inspection form key elements in a program of fracture
92 Dept. of NASB,SNGCE
control.
Ship hull is a thin walled
stiffened plate structure.

Globally , it behaves like

a beam.
Butt locally, as a
stiffened plate.
 Hull can bend like a
beam
hogging

This kind of bending is called longitudinal

bending: with curvature in longitudinal
direction.

sagging