Lecture Notes for

Engineering 5003 – Ship Structures I

Claude Daley, Professor, D.Sc., P.Eng.
Faculty of Engineering and Applied Science
Memorial University
St. John‟s, CANADA

by Sketchup
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Table of Contents

Chapter 1: Introduction to Ship Structures ........................................................................................ 1

Chapter 2: Ship Structural Features ................................................................................................. 8
Chapter 3: Longitudinal Strength: Buoyancy&weight ...................................................................... 17
Chapter 4: Longitudinal Strength: Murray’s Method........................................................................ 28
Chapter 5: Longitudinal Strength: Wave Bending Moments ........................................................... 33
Chapter 6: Longitudinal Strength: Inclined Bending / Section Modulus .......................................... 40
Chapter 7: Beam Theory ................................................................................................................ 50
Chapter 8: Beams, Frame and Structures ...................................................................................... 60
Chapter 9: Indeterminate Beams – Force Method .......................................................................... 67
Chapter 10: Indeterminate Beams – Displacement Method ........................................................... 79
Chapter 11: Energy Methods in Structural Analysis........................................................................ 89
Chapter 12: The Moment Distribution Method ................................................................................ 96
Chapter 13: The Moment Distribution Method with Sway ............................................................. 112
Chapter 14: Matrix Structural Analysis.......................................................................................... 124
Chapter 15 Overview of Finite Element Theory ............................................................................ 138
Chapter 16: Hull Girder Shear Stresses ....................................................................................... 153
Chapter 17: Shear Stresses in multi-cell sections......................................................................... 168
Chapter 18: Shear Flow in adjacent Closed Cells......................................................................... 184
Chapter 19: Torsion in ships ......................................................................................................... 187
Chapter 20: Shear Center and Shear Lag in Ship Structures ....................................................... 196
Chapter 21: Plate Bending............................................................................................................ 209
Chapter 22: Hull Girder Stress Assessment ................................................................................. 224
Appendix....................................................................................................................................... 234
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Chapter 1: Introduction to Ship Structures

Course objectives

The course is intended to develop the student‟s knowledge of ship

structures. The focus is on various types of intact structural behavior,
building upon your courses in mechanics of materials. The course project
will involve the design, drawing and reporting on the mid-ship scantlings
(hull girder design) of a large vessel. The follow-on course (6003) will move
from the consideration of intact behaviour to the mechanics of structural
failure.

Star of India (San-Diego)

Background
Humans have been constructing structures for a long time. A structure is a tool for
carrying (carrying what is in or on the structure).
Ship structures have evolved like all other types of structures (buildings, aircraft,
bridges ...). Design was once purely a craft. Design is evolving as we understand
more about the structure itself and the environment that we subject it to.
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Traditional Design
Built by tradition (prior example)
changes based primarily on experience (some analysis)
essentially a builders “Craft”

Engineering Design
Incorporates analysis based on math/physics
common designs are codified (building code, class rules..)
new designs should follow the “Engineering Method”
design and construction are separate specialties

early Finnish icebreaker

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Purpose of Ship Structures

The structure of a ship or ocean platform has 3 principal functions:
1. Strength (resist environmental forces – waves + )
2. Stiffness (resist deflections – allow ship/equipment to function)
3. Water tight integrity (stay floating)

Offshore Supply Vessel Bulk Carrier FLARE 1998

There are two other important functions

4. provide subdivision (tolerance to damage of 1,3 above)
5. support payloads

oops!

These functions are all interrelated, but should be considered somewhat separately.
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Structural Arrangement
The particular arrangement of the structure is done to suit a variety of demands;
1. Hull is shaped (reduce resistance, reduce motions, reduce ice forces, increase
ice forces, reduce noise)
2. holds are arranged for holding/loading cargo
3. holds are arranged for holding/installing engines
4. superstructure is arranged for accommodation/navigation
5. all structure is arranged for build-ability/maintainability
6. all structure is arranged for safety
7. all structure is arranged for low cost

Types of Structural Work

Ship structural specialists are involved in a variety of work;
o Design
o Analysis
o Construction
o Maintenance
o Repair
o Regulation

While almost all Naval Architects get involved in structural issues, as with most
professions, a few focus on the area and tend to be involved in any advanced work.
This course aims to have you develop your „feel‟ as well as your knowledge of
structures. In other words, you should work at developing you “Engineering
Judgment” in the area of ship structures.

Structural Behavior
Ship structural behavior, as with all structural behavior is essentially very simple.
Structures are an assemblage of parts. This distinguishes them from objects. A
beam or plate is a structural element, but only a collection of structural elements is
called a structure. The theory of structures builds upon the field of „mechanics of
materials‟ (also called mechanics of solids, or strength of materials), by considering
the interactions and combined behaviors of collections of structural components. So,
much of this course will focus on techniques for understanding collections of
structural elements. We will also review and expand, somewhat, on the mechanics
of individual elements.
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The main thing that structures (and all parts of structures) do is “PUSH BACK”.

Newton‟s 3rd Law : action = reaction

i.e. across any interface (across every patch of every plane, everywhere in the
universe, always) the force acts in both ways.
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Rational Structural Design (Hughes p.7)

The process of structural design is shown in outline form below. Structural design
occurs after the mission is set and a general arrangement is determined. The
general arrangement allows up to determine both the environmental loads and the
distribution of hull/outfit/cargo weights. The establishment of scantlings (structural
dimensions) is iterative. We assume that a preliminary set of dimensions is settled
upon from experience or by other choice. The loads will cause a set of responses
(stresses, deflections). The response criteria are then compared to the responses.
For any inadequacies we modify the structural dimensions and repeat the response
analysis. When all responses are satisfactory, we are finished.

In cases where we wish to satisfy additional constraints (cost, performance..) we add

checks for these items after we have checked the structural response. Again we loop
until we have met the constraints, and reached optimal values for some measure.
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Load Types
We will define four general types of structural loads.
1. Static Loads (e.g. fixed weights)
2. Low Frequency Dynamic Loads (e.g. quasi static load, wave loads)
3. High Frequency Dynamic Loads (e.g. vibrations)
4. Impact Loads (e.g., blast, collisions)

With both static and quasi-static loads, we do not need to take inertial or rate
effects into account in the structural response. With high frequency loads we need
to consider structural vibrations which includes inertial effects and damping. For
impact loads, we have both transient inertial effects and rate effects in material
behavior. It is important to distinguish between loads affecting vessel rigid body
motions and elastic structural response. Wave forces may cause the vessel as a
whole to respond with inertial effects (heaving motions), but will seldom cause
anything but quasi-static response of the structure. The important determinant is
the relative frequency of the load and response. Local structure will respond
elastically at frequencies in the 100hz to 3000hz range. The hull girder will flex at
around the 1 hz rate. The vessel will heave and roll at around the 0.1 hz range.
(large vessels/structures will respond more slowly).

In this course we will examine the structural response to quasi-static loads. The
hull girder is sized to resist the combination of self weights and wave forces.
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Chapter 2: Ship Structural Features

new, empty container ship

Introduction
In this Chapter we will
Name and describe ships structural components.
Discuss some structural features and challenges for various vessels,
~~~~~~
Boats are made from a variety of materials, including wood, fiberglass,
composites, aluminum, steel and cement. Ships are built mainly from steel. In this
Chapter we will name and discuss the main structural features of steel ships. Ships
are much longer than they are wide or deep. They are built this way in order to
minimize resistance (fuel consumption), and yet maintain adequate stability and
seaworthiness. This geometry results in the ship being a girder (a beam built from
compound parts). The figures below show sketches of the structural details of the
midship section of a bulk carrier.
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Figure 1.

This type of vessel is very common, and has many problems. Single side shell
vessels are being replaced with double hull vessels. The FLARE had this type of
construction.

Figure 2. Bow of Bulk Carrier FLARE

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Figure 3 shows a 3D representation of the same x-section as show in Figure 1.

Figure 3.

Figure 4 Rhino Sketch of section of longitudinally framed double hull Container

vessel.
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Ship Structural Photos

Terra Nova FPSO – Floating Production, Storage and Offloading vessel

Terra Nova Hull Framing Terra Nova Structural Connection Details

This structure is above the waterline, and so is quite light.
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Terra Nova Stringer with web stiffener bracket

Terra Nova Longitudinal angle frames Transverse flat bar frames through stringer
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Terra Nova flat bar frames Terra Nova Flare tower

Terry Fox – Icebreaker Bow framing in Terry Fox

The Terry Fox is ~7000 tons displacement and capable of ramming thick old ice. It has
never been damaged.
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Carnival Cruise Ship Reduta Ordona

Local ice damage CPF plating

Also circulated with this Chapter is a listing of ship terms and definitions.
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L.2 – Problems.

1. Read the SSC Case Study V and name all the parts of the Rhino sketch
shown below.

2. What was the basic cause of the “Recurring Failure of Side Longitudinal” in
the SSC report?
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Chapter 3: Longitudinal Strength: Buoyancy&weight

Introduction
In this Chapter we will
Discuss Still water bending moments, bonjean curves, Prohaska‟s
method and a similar method for non-parallel midbodys
~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~
Overview

Structural design starts from:

Principal Dimensions - L,B,T

Hull Form - CB, CWP, CM
General Arrangement – decks and bulkheads

Which is called preliminary design:

This first strength consideration is the longitudinal strength of the hull girder. The
hull girder feels vertical forces due to weight and buoyancy. For any floating body
the total weight must equal the total buoyancy, and both forces must act along the
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same line of action. However, at each location along the ship, the weight will not
normally equal the buoyancy.
The weights are set by the combination of lightship and cargo weights. The
locations of the weights are fixed (more or less). The buoyancy forces are determined
by the shape of the hull and the location of the vessel in the water (draft and trim).
The net buoyancy will adjust itself until is exactly counteracts the net weight force.
However, this does not mean that each part of the vessel has a balance of weight
and buoyancy. Local segments of the vessel may have more or less weight than the
local buoyancy. The difference will be made up by a transfer of shear forces along
the vessel.
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Bending Moment Calculations

The „design‟ bending moment is the combination of Stillwater bending and wave
bending. To calculate these values we will make the following assumptions;
1. Ship is a beam
2. Small deflection theory
3. Response is quasi-static
4. Lateral loading can be superimposed

~~~~~~~~

Still Water Bending Moment (SWBM)

The still water bending moment is calculated from the effect of the weights and
buoyancy in calm water. The buoyancy force is a line load (e.g. kN/m). The local
buoyancy per meter is found from the x-sectional area of the hull at each location.
The x-sectional area depends on the local draft and are found from the „bonjean‟
curves.
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Bonjean Curves – Calculating the Buoyancy Distribution

Bonjean curves show the relationship between local draft and submerged cross-
sectional area. There is one bonjean curve for each station. There are typically 21
stations from the FP to the AP, with 0 being the FP. This divides the Lbp into 20
segments.

At each station we can draw a bonjean curve of the x-section area;

Bonjeans are drawn on the profile of the vessel. With these curves, we can find the
distribution of buoyancy for any waterline (any draft, any trim).

For hydrostatic calculations we need to know the distribution of buoyancy along the
ship. We need to be able to find this for every possible draft/trim. If we had a wall
sided vessel, it would be relatively easy to solve for the draft/trim (as in Assignment
#1). With shaped hulls, there is a non-linear relationship between buoyancy and
position. We use bonjean curves to find the buoyancies as follows.
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For the typical 21 station ship, we divide the ship into 21 slices, each extending fore
and aft of its station. Using the bonjean curve for each station we calculate the total
displacement at our draft/trim;


20
L 
   a i ( T i )  BP  [m3]
i 0  20 

For example, the displacement for station 3 is;

L BP
3  A 3  [m3]
20

The buoyant line load for station 3 is;

 3  3    g [N/m]

(assuming that area is in m2, g=9.81 m/s2 and  = 1025 kg/m3)

The above will provide a way of calculating the buoyant forces at each station. We
will now discuss the weights.
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Calculating the Weight Distribution

We will discuss three methods for determining weighs.

If the weight distribution is known (even preliminarily), we use them directly. The
steps to follow are;
o Calculate the weight at each station (+- half station)
o (optionally) find the c.g. of weights for each segment
o (optionally) place the weights at the c.g.

~~~~~~~
If the weight distribution is unknown and we need to estimate the distribution, we
can use the Prohaska method. Prohaska proposed a method for a ship with parallel
middle body (i.e. most cargo vessels). The weight distribution is a trapezoid on top of
a uniform distribution, as follows;

The weights are distributed according to the pattern above. With the average
Whull
weight/meter of the hull : W  the values of a and b are ;
L

a b
W W
Tankers .75 1.125
Full Cargo Ships .55 1.225
Fine Cargo Ships .45 1.275
Large Passenger Ships .30 1.35
Note that the values of a and b are related, so that the average is W . This gives
b a
 1.5  .
W 2W
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To move the position of the center of weight (the lcg) the fore and aft ends of the
load diagram are adjusted by equal (and opposite) amounts.

7 lcg 54
lcg  x  L2 or, x
54 L2 7

~~~~~~
If the weight distribution is unknown and we have a vessel without a parallel
middle body (i.e. most sail yachts), we need a smoother distribution. The method
below uses a parabolic distribution on top of a uniform distribution. The two parts
each have half the weight.

The equation for the weight is;

W 3 2x
W  W (1  (  1) 2 )
2 4 L

To shift the total center of weight by „x‟ we shift the c.g. of the parabola by 2x. This
is done by „shearing‟ the curve, so that the top center, „D‟, shifts by 5x. All other
points shift proportionally.
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Chapter 3 – Problems.

1. For the three station profiles shown below, draw the bonjean curves in the space
provided.
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2. For a vessel with 4 stations, the bonjean curves are given at the 3 half stations.
Lbp is 60m.
a) for the vessel to float level (no trim), at a 4.5 m draft, where is the C.G.?
b) what would the Prohaska distribution of weight be to achieve this? (plot)
c) If the C.G is at midships, and the draft (at midships) is 4.5 m, what is the
trim?

3. For the bonjean shown below (left), sketch the corresponding vessel body plan
curve (on the right). [4]
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4. There is a ‘diamond’ shaped block of wood, as shown in the image below. The block weighs
5.4 kg. and has uniform density. It is 60 cm long and 30 cm wide. It is 12 cm thick and is
floating in fresh water. Resting on the block are 2 weights, each small blocks of steel
weighing 1 kg. They are symmetrically placed and are 55cm apart.
a) What is the midship bending moment in units of N-cm ?
b) What is the maximum bending stress in the wooden block?
c) Draw the bonjean curve for a cross section of the wooden block at a point 15cm from the
end. (show actual units).
d) What is the block coefficient for the block?

ANS: a) 171.5 N-cm (hog) b) 23.8 MPa c) Straight and then vertical d) 0.5

5. Bonjean Curves The following figure shows 5 potential Bonjean curves. Some of them are
impossible. Identify the curves that can not be Bonjean curves and explain why. For the
feasible Bonjeans, sketch the x-section that the Bonjean describes.
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6. You are supervising a preliminary ship design project. You have asked one of your team to
produce a net load (weight-buoyancy) diagram, so that bending moments can be calculated.
The diagram you are given is ;

Net Load Curve

20

-20
AP ¼ ¾ FP

why is this diagram impossible? Justify your answer. (hint: use SFD and/or BMD)
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Chapter 4: Longitudinal Strength: Murray‟s Method

Introduction
In this chapter we will
 Discuss Murray‟s Method to estimate still water bending moments
~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~
Murray‟s Method

Murray‟s method is based on the idea that forces and moments in a ship are self-
balancing (no net force or moment is transferred to the world). Any set of weight
and buoyancy forces are in balance.

Also, for any cut at x, the moment at the cut can be determined in two ways;
BM ( x)  y1 L1  y 2 L2

 y5 L5  y3 L3  y 4 L4
Murray applied this idea to a ship:
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where
ff,fa are the distances from the to the centers of weight (fore and aft)
gf,ga are the distances from the to the centers of buoyancy (fore and aft)

The bending moment at midships is;

 Wa f a   a g a
or
Wf f f   f g f

These are two „estimates‟ of the maximum bending moment. We can combine the
two, and increase our accuracy, by taking the average of the two;


1
Wa f a  W f f f   1  a g a   f g f 
2 2
 BM W  BM B
weight - buoyancy
To find the buoyancy part, Murray suggested

BM B 
1
 a g a   f g f   1   x
2 2
where x = average moment arm

Murray suggested a set of values for x , as a function of the ship length, block
coefficient and the ratio of draft to length;
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x  L(a  CB  b)
where

T/L a b
.03 .209 .03
.04 .199 .041
.05 .189 .052
.06 .179 .063

This table for a and b can be represented adequately by the equation;

a  .239  T / L
b  .1.1T / L  .003

Example using Murray‟s Method

Ship: Tanker L=278m, B=37m, CB=0.8

Assume wave bending moment is;

WBMsag = 583800 t-m
WBMhog = 520440 t-m

The vessel weights, and weight bending moments are as follows;

I TEM Weigh t lcg Mom en t
( t) (m) ( t -m )
F wd
ca r go 62000 40 2480000
fu el & wa t er 590 116 68440
s t eel 12000 5 5 .6 667200
3 ,2 1 5 ,6 4 0
Aft
ca r go 49800 37 1842600
m a ch in er y 3400 125 425000
ou t fit 900 120 108000
s t eel 12000 5 5 .6 667200
 140690 t 3 ,0 4 2 ,8 0 0

BMw = 3 ,1 2 9 ,2 2 0

To find the buoyancy moment we need the draft;

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W    CB  L  B  T  

 140690
T 
C B  L  B   0.8  278  37 1.025
 16.68 m

T 16.68
  0.06
L 278

Murray‟s table gives;

a=0.179, b=0.063

x  278(.179  0.8  .063)  57.32 m

1
BM B   x
2
1
 140690  57.32  4,032,428 t-m
2

SWBM = BMW-BMB
hog sag
 3,129,220  4,032,428
 903,145 t-m (- is sag)

we need to add the wave bending moment in sag

Total BM = 903,145 + 583,800

= 1,486,945 t-m (sag)

Note that in this case the ship will never get in the hogging condition, because the
SWBM is so large.
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Chapter 4 – Problems.

1. For the example of Murray‟s method in the Chapter, remove the cargo weight
and add 4000 t of ballast, with a cg of 116m fwd of midship. Re-calculate the
maximum sag and hog moments (both still water and wave).

2. For the example of Murray‟s method in the Chapter, instead of using the
weight locations as given, assume that the weights are distributed according
to Prohaska. Re-calculate the SWBM.

3. There is a ‘diamond’ shaped block of wood, as shown in the image below. The block
weighs 5.4 kg. and has uniform density. It is 60 cm long and 30 cm wide. It is 12 cm
thick and is floating in fresh water. Resting on the block are 2 weights, each small blocks
of steel weighing 1 kg. They are symmetrically placed and are 55cm apart. Compare the
value obtained from hydrostatics (in Ch 3) with a value estimated by making use of
Prokaska and Murray.
ANS: Mnet = 15.6 N-cm (hog)
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Chapter 5: Longitudinal Strength: Wave Bending Moments

Introduction
In this Chapter we will
 Discuss the shape of ocean design waves
 The moments caused by waves
~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~
Design Waves

Design wave forces are considered to be quasi-static. As a wave passes by a vessel,

the worst hogging moment will occur when the midbody is on the crest of a wave
and the bow and stern are in the troughs. The worst sagging moment will happen
when the bow and stern are on two crests, with the midbody in the trough between.

Whether for sagging or hogging, the worst condition will occur when the wavelength
is close to the vessel length. If the waves are much shorter,
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or much longer than the vessel, the bending moments will be less than if the
wavelength equals the ship length.

Consequently, the design wave for any vessel will have a wavelength equal to the
vessel length. The wave height is also constrained. Waves will have a limited height
to length ratio, or they will break. This results in a standard design wave of L/20. In
other words the wave height (peak to trough) is 1/20th of the wave length.

Trochoidal Wave Profile

Note that the waves sketched above did not look like sinusoids. Waves at sea tend
to be trochoidal shaped, rather than simple sine waves. This has the feature that
the crests are steeper and the troughs are more rounded.

A trochoidal wave is constructed using a rolling wheel.

In the case of the design wave;

LW = LBP
HW = LBP/20 } for now we assume that this length and
height or wave is possible

We can see that;

LW = 2  R
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HW = 2 r

Which gives;

L BP L
R  , r  BP
2 40

r 

R 20

To construct a plot of the wave, we start with a coordinate system at the crest of the
wave.

x  R   r sin  }  = rolling angle

z  r (1  cos  )

This is a parametric equation (  is a parameter). We can write;

L L
x   sin 
2 40
L
z  ( 1  cos  )
40
To plot the wave, it is a simple matter to calculate x and z as a function of  and
then plot z vs x. This is done in the spreadsheet below.

L 100
H 5

 x z
0 0 0
10 2.343657 -0.03798
2
20 4.700505 -0.15077
0
-2
z

30 7.083333 -0.33494
-4
40 9.504142 -0.58489
-6
50 11.97378 -0.89303
60 14.5016 -1.25 0 50 100 150 200
x
70 17.09521 -1.64495
80 19.7602 -2.06588
90 22.5 -2.5
100 25.31576 -2.93412
110 28.20632 -3.35505
120 31.16827 -3.75
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1.1 L Wave

L/20 waves have been found to be too conservative for large vessels, esp. for vessels
>500 ft. A more modern version of the 1 . 1 L wave. In this case;

as before, LW = LBP

H w  1 . 1 L BP (in feet)
or
H w  0 . 607 L BP (in meters)

For trochoidal waves this gives;

L BP
R  , r  . 55 L BP (feet) or r  . 303 L BP (meters)
2

Calculating Wave Bending Moments

We can now calculate the wave bending moments by placing the ship on the design
wave. We can use the bonjean curves to determine the buoyancy forces due to the
quasi-static effects of the wave;

The steps to determine the wave bending moment are;

1. Obtain bonjeans
2. at each station determine the still water buoyancy forces, using the design
draft. Fisw = Aisw li g
3. at each station determine the total buoyancy forces, using the local draft in
that portion of the wave. Fiwt = Aiwt li g
4. The net wave buoyancy forces are the difference between wave and still
water. Fiwave=Fiwt-Fisw
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This gives us a set of station buoyancy forces due to the wave (net of still water).
These forces should be in equilibrium (no net vertical force). We can calculate the
moment at midships from either the net effect of all forces forward, or all forces aft
(the two moments will balance).

There are other ways to do this kind of calculation. 3D cad programs such as Rhino
can be used to find the still water and wave bending moments. Assuming that we
have a hull modeled in Rhino, we can find the still water buoyancy forces for the
fore and aft halves of the vessel by finding the volume and location of the centroids
of the two submerged volumes.
The procedure would be as follows;

1. Produce solid model of hull

2. Cut the model at both the centerline and waterlines.
3. Find the volumes and centroids of the two halves.
4. Calculate the buoyant moments about midships.

A similar procedure would determine the wave values. The only difference would be
the need to draw the trochoidal wave as a surface.

The example below shows use of Rhino to calculate the Bouyant BM for a large
vessel. The centroids of the two half volumes are shown.

BMB = 109,000 x 1.025 x 53.97 (m3 x t/m3 x m = t-m)

= 6,029,798 t-m
or
BMB = 123,000 x 1.025 x 58.58 (m3 x t/m3 x m = t-m)
= 7,385,473 t-m

average: BMB = 6,707,376 t-m (sag)

The difference between this and the weight moment (hog) will give the SWBM.
 E5003 – Ship Structures I 38
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Rhino model, showing slices and centroids

E5003 – Ship Structures I 39
© C.G.Daley

Chapter 5 – Problems.

1. Using a spreadsheet, plot the design trochoidal wave for a 250m vessel, for
the L/20 wave.
2. Using a spreadsheet, plot the design trochoidal wave for a 250m vessel, for
the 1.1 L.5 wave.
3. Self Study – examine the SW/Wave spreadsheet (circulated).
E5003 – Ship Structures I 40
© C.G.Daley

Chapter 6: Longitudinal Strength: Inclined Bending /

Section Modulus

Introduction
In this Chapter we will
 Discuss the calculation of bending of an inclined vessel
 General calculation of hull section modulus/inertia
~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~
Inclined and Lateral Bending

When a ship rolls the weight and buoyancy forces cause lateral as well as vertical
bending. Normally the bending moment vector is aligned with the ship‟s y axis. My
is the bending moment that results from buoyancy and weight forces.

When the vessels rolls by an angle q, the moment vector remains horizontal. This is
because the buoyancy and gravity forces are always vertical. This means that the
bending moment is no longer aligned with the y,z axis of the vessel;
E5003 – Ship Structures I 41
© C.G.Daley

Moments are vectors, adding in the same way that force vectors do.

M z  M w sin  lateral bending

M y  M w cos  vertical bending

Stresses in the Vessel

Both My and Mz cause bending stresses in the x (along ship) direction.

M yz Mzy
V  H  
I NA I CL

Note: Sign convention: R.H.R., moment acting on +x cut face, compression is

positive.

In this case a +My causes tension (-) on the +z part of the vessel. A +Mz causes
compression (+) on the +y side of the vessel.
E5003 – Ship Structures I 42
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The total axial stress at any point on the vessel is the sum of the stresses caused by
the two directions of bending.

M yz Mzy
 X  V   H  
I NA I CL
 M w z cos  M w y sin 
 
I NA I CL

When we have bending moments in both y and z, there will be a line of zero axial
stress that we call the heeled neutral axis. This is not necessarily aligned with the
total moment. To find the heeled neutral axis we solve for the location of zero stress;

 M w z cos  M w y sin 
X  0   ,
I NA I CL

solving for z in terms of y , we get;

I
z  NA tan   y ,
I CL
I
where we define: tan   NA tan 
I CL
z  tan   y

 is the angle of the heeled neutral axis from the y axis;

E5003 – Ship Structures I 43
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Peak Stresses

The highest stresses will occur @ y=B/2 , Z=Zdeck

There are 2 section modulus values;

I NA I
Z NA  , Z CL  CL
z deck B 2

So that we can write;

 cos  sin  
 max  M w   
 NA
Z Z CL 

This leads to the question: What is the worst angle of heel (cr)?

To find it we use;

d  max   sin cr cos cr 

 0  Mw    ,
d  Z NA Z CL 

which gives;
Z
tan cr  NA
Z CL

Typically Z NA Z CL  0 . 5 so cr  26 . 6 

Mw   sin 26 . 6 cos 26 . 6 
For example, if   0  then   26 . 6  M w   
Z NA  Z NA 2  Z NA 
M
 w 1 . 12
Z NA

i.e. for this vessel, there is a 12% increase in stress during the worst roll.
E5003 – Ship Structures I 44
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Section Modulus Calculations

Ships are largely built of plates. This means that the moment or inertia and section
modulus calculations normally involve a collection of rectangular parts. For any
individual plate:

Ina = 1/12 b t3
= 1/12 a t2

Ina = 1/12 t b3
= 1/12 a b2

Ina = 1/12 a d2
= 1/12 t b3 cos2

~~~~~~
For compound sections we need to be able to find the inertia about other axes. We
use the transfer of axis theorem:
E5003 – Ship Structures I 45
© C.G.Daley

Izz = Ina + a c2

The overall neutral axis (NA) is found by equating 2 expressions for the 1st moment
of area;
A hNA =  ai hi

The total area A is just the sum of areas.

A =  ai

This gives;
hNA =  ai hi /  ai = (a1 h1 + a2 h2)/(a1+a2)
The overall NA goes through the centroid of the compound area.

Moment of Inertia Calculation

Izz =  ai hi2 +  Inai

INA = Izz - A hNA2

or
INA = Inai + ai (hi - hNA)2)
A simple spreadsheet, as shown below, can be used to find the moment of inertia of
a ship;
E5003 – Ship Structures I 46
© C.G.Daley

See Assignment #2 for an application.

Section Modulus for Material Combinations

(e.g. Steel Hull, Al Superstructure)

Consider a section with 2 materials

When the section bends the sections remain plane, meaning that the strain field is
linear.
E5003 – Ship Structures I 47
© C.G.Daley

To determine the stress/strain/deflection relationships, we convert the x-section to

an equivalent section. The idea is to modify the section so that it is all made of one
material, but retains the distribution of axial force (and bending stiffness). We do
this by adjusting the width of one of the materials, in accordance with the ratio of
Young‟s Modulus. For example, Aluminum is converted to steel, but made thinner
by Eal/Est.

For the modified section, ITR is calculated in the usual way. The strains and
deflections for any vertical bending moment will be correct.

M
i.e. v  
EI TR

The only error will be the stresses in the transformed region. The stresses in the
unmodified region will be correct, but the modified region will be wrong by the ratio
of modulii. We can correct this as follows;

My My E My
   1  and  2  2 
I TR I TR E 1 I TR
E5003 – Ship Structures I 48
© C.G.Daley

Chapter 6 – Problems.

1. Find the moment of inertia of this compound section:

dimensions in mm
E5003 – Ship Structures I 49
© C.G.Daley
E5003 – Ship Structures I 50
© C.G.Daley

Chapter 7: Beam Theory

Introduction
In this Chapter we will
 Review the elastic behavior of beams
 Show the relationship among load, shear, bending, slope and
deflection
~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~
Coordinate System and Sign Convention

Sign Convention : Right Hand Rule

+ Forces and deflections follow the axes.

+ Moments and rotations follow the curl of the fingers (on the right hand) when the
thumb is pointing along the axis.

Shear strain:

Bending moment:

To determine the equations for beam bending we take a small section of the beam
(which represents any part) as a free body. We look at all the forces and moments
on the section and assuming that the net force and net moment are zero (Newton!)
we derive the equation.
E5003 – Ship Structures I 51
© C.G.Daley

In SI units:
P : N/m
Q:N
M : Nm
dx: m

At this point we haven‟t specified P,Q or M. The can have any values. We will
examine equilibrium conditions and see how these result in relationships among
P,Q,M.

We start by summing vertical forces, which must sum to zero for equilibrium;
Q ( x )  (Q ( x )  dQ )  P ( x ) dx  0 [N]

which is simplified to;

dQ  P ( x ) dx
and rearranged to give;
dQ
P(x ) 
dx

This is a differential equation that states that the line load on a beam is equal to
the rate of change (slope) of the shear force. Next we sum moments about the right
hand end, which must also sum to zero to show equilibrium of the free body.

dx
 M ( x )  Q ( x ) dx  P ( x ) dx  ( M ( x )  dM )  0
2
which is simplified to;
dx 2
 Q ( x ) dx  P ( x )  dM  0
2

note that dx is not just small, it is vanishingly small, so that dx2 is vanishingly
small by comparison (i.o.w. we can remove the second order terms, in this case with
no loss of accuracy). Therefore;

 Q ( x ) dx  dM  0
or;
dM
Q( x ) 
dx

This is our second (related) differential equation, which states that the shear in a
beam is the rate of change (slope) of the bending moment.

We now have two differential equations;

E5003 – Ship Structures I 52
© C.G.Daley

dQ dM
P(x )  and Q ( x ) 
dx dx

We can re-express these relationships in integral form;

Q ( x )   P ( x )dx
x
 Q 0   P ( x )dx
0

In words: shear is the sum of all loads from start to x.

Example 1: Cantilever beam

The shear force is;

x
Q ( x )  Q 0   P ( x )dx
0
x
 0    p dx
0
 p  x
The shear force diagram is;
E5003 – Ship Structures I 53
© C.G.Daley

The bending moment is;

x
M ( x)  M 0   Q( x)dx
0

Which when solved and plotted gives;

Example 2: Pinned-pinned beam

x
Q ( x )  Q 0    p dx
0
p L
  p x
2
The shear force diagram is;
E5003 – Ship Structures I 54
© C.G.Daley

The bending moment is;

x
pL
M ( x)  M 0    px dx
0
2
Which when solved and plotted gives;

Aside: The shear difference between any two points on a beam will be exactly equal
to the load applied to the beam between these two points, for any pattern of load.
This leads to a very easy and accurate way to measure force;

F  Q2  Q1
This principle has been used to design load cells, and to instrument ship frames to
measure contact loads from ice or slamming.
E5003 – Ship Structures I 55
© C.G.Daley

Adding Deformations

So far we have differential equations for load/shear/bending relationships. Now we

add deformations.

The shear force and bending moments are causing stresses and strains in the beam.
We make the assumption that we can ignore the shear deformations (this is part of
what we call simple beam theory), so that only the bending moments cause
distortions.

So... we can assume that the beam is bent into a simple circular curve (over any
short length);

The neutral axis (NA) does not stretch or contract. The upper and lower parts of the
beam compress and/or stretch. We can use the two „known‟ relationships;
My
 (stress-moment)
I
  E (stress-strain)

For the top fiber (in the fig. above) we see that the strain is;

l c  d
 
dx dx
from the above we have;
E5003 – Ship Structures I 56
© C.G.Daley

M c d
 c
EI dx

which can be re-arranged to give;

d M M
 or d  dx
dx EI EI

Note that d is the change in slope between two points:

This gives us;

x
M
  0   dx
0
EI

For prismatic sections, EI is constant, so;

x
EI  EI 0   M dx
0

or
x
1
EI 0
  0  M dx
E5003 – Ship Structures I 57
© C.G.Daley

Similarly, to find deflections v, we use the relationships;

dv
 tan    dv    dx
dx

which lets us write;

x x
v( x)  v0   dv  v0   dx
0 0

This completes the development of the differential equations for beams.

E5003 – Ship Structures I 58
© C.G.Daley

Chapter 7 – Problems.

1. Find and draw the shear force and bending moment diagrams for the following
beam. Find the values at supports and other max/min values.

2. There is a 3m beam. The shear force diagram is sketched below.

a) Sketch the load, moment, slope and deflection diagrams (9)
b) What are the boundary conditions and discuss whether there can be more than one option
for the boundary conditions.(6)

3. Consider a compound steel-aluminum beam, shown below. Calculate the deflection d (show
steps) Ans: 0.112m [4]
E5003 – Ship Structures I 59
© C.G.Daley

4. For elastic beam bending, complete Figure 1. The shear force diagram is sketched. You need
to infer from the shear what the load (including support reactions) may be, as well as an
estimate of the bending moment diagram, the slope diagram and the deflected shape. Draw
the support conditions and the applied load on the beam, and sketch the moment, slope and
deflection is the areas given.
E5003 – Ship Structures I 60
© C.G.Daley

Chapter 8: Beams, Frame and Structures

Introduction
In this Chapter we will
 Review the differential equation set derived in the last Chapter and
discuss solutions using Maple
~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~
Family of Differential Equations

Simple beam behavior considers only the deflections due to bending, and only in 2
dimensions. Torsion, shear and other elastic distortions are neglected (for now).

Consider a beam between two supports, we describe the deflections with the
variable v(x).

The analysis of bending in Chapter 7, included the two differential equations;

E5003 – Ship Structures I 61
© C.G.Daley

d( x ) M ( x ) dv ( x )
 and  ( x )
dx EI dx

This two can be combined to give the second order differential equation;

d 2v ( x ) M

dx 2 EI
or
M
v  
EI

We can similarly express all the responses as derivatives of deflection as;

v  deflection [m]

v     slope [rad]

v EI
  M  bending moment [N-m]

  Q  shear force [N]

v EI

v EI
  P  line load [N/m]

Seen in this way, the key behavior is deflection, all other quantities being derived
from it. There is a similar set of equations, expressed in integral form, starting
from load;

P ( x )  line load [N/m]

x
Q ( x )  Q0   P ( x ) dx  shear force [N]
0
x
M ( x )  M 0   Q ( x ) dx  bending moment [N-m]
0
x
1
 ( x )  0 
EI  M ( x ) dx
0
 slope [rad]
x
v ( x )  v 0    ( x ) dx  deflection [m]
0

These equations can be used to solve any beam bending problem.

E5003 – Ship Structures I 62
© C.G.Daley

Solving Beam Equations

To solve beam equations, we need to know the beam geometry and properties (L, E,
I), the loading conditions (length, shape and magnitude of load) and the boundary
conditions (fixed, pinned, free, guided). For example, the beam sketch below is fixed
on the left end, guided on the right and with the loading and properties shown.

The boundary conditions are described in terms of what is known. For a fixed end
we know that the deflection and rotation are zero. For a guided end we know that
the shear (reaction) and rotation are zero. The four standard boundary conditions
are shown below;

Each of the boundary conditions results in the deflection or one of its derivatives
being equal to zero.
E5003 – Ship Structures I 63
© C.G.Daley

Solving beam equations using Maple

Maple is a computer program that is capable of solving a wide variety of

mathematical problems, including differential equations.

Here is a very simple example of Maple‟s ability to solve and plot differential
equations. This is the solution of a cantilever beam (EI=1, L=10) under uniform load
(p=-1).

The basic differential equation;

p
v   is written in Maple as: diff(v(x),x$4) = p/EI
EI

The boundary conditions are;

v ( x  0 )  0 is written in Maple as: v(0) = 0 (deflection =0 at 0)
v ( x  0 )  0 is written in Maple as: D(v)(0) = 0 (slope =0 at 0)
v ( x  L )  0 is written in Maple as: D(D(v))(0) = 0 (moment =0 at L)
v ( x  L )  0 is written in Maple as: D(D(D(v))) (0) = 0 (shear =0 at L)

The Maple function dsolve solves the given differential equation, together with the
boundary condition equations, to find the required variable.

Below is the full Maple input and result, showing the shape of a deflected
cantilever;

> dsolve({diff(v(x),x$4) = p/EI, v(0)=0, D(v)(0)=0, D(D(v))(L)=0, D(D(D(v)))(L)=0 },v(x));

> def:=rhs(%):
> L:=10: p:=-1: EI:=1:
> plot(def,x=0..L);

The appendix shows a more elaborate case, with a more general load description
and more response plots.
E5003 – Ship Structures I 64
© C.G.Daley

Chapter 8 – Problems.

1. Solve the following beam. What is the maximum deflection (mm)? What is
the maximum stress (MPa) ?

ANS: .000136mm, 140 Pa

2. Solve the following beam. What is the maximum deflection (mm)? What is
the maximum stress (MPa) ?

ANS: .000484mm, 253 Pa

E5003 – Ship Structures I 65
© C.G.Daley

ANNEX – a MAPLE file to solve beams with patch loads

> restart:
E 5003 - Ship Structures
Example of use of MAPLE V to solve differential equations for beams
by: Claude Daley

The following aliases simplify the definition of derivatives (used for boundary
conditions).
> D3 := (x) -> D(D(D(x))): # short form for 3rd
derivative
> D2 := (x) -> D(D(x)): # short form for 2nd
derivative
> D1 := (x) -> D(x): # short form for 1st
derivative
> H:=a -> Heaviside(x-a):
> nH:=x -> 1-H(x):
Length, Stiffness, Load at "a", Load at end, Location of "a"
> L := 10: EI := 10^6:
> Fg := (wa,wb,a,b) -> (wa*H(a)+H(a)*(x-a)*(wb-wa)/(b-a))*nH(b):
# distributed force
> load:=Fg(1,1,1,2):
> supports := {v(L)=0,D2(v)(L)=0,v(0)=0,D2(v)(0)=0}: #this
represents 2 pinned ends
> de := EI*diff(v(x),x$4) = load: # Form differential
equation (one of the set we derived)
> dsolve({de}union supports ,v(x)): # Solve boundary
value problem
> vv := rhs(%): # Extract deflection
> th := diff(vv,x): # Extract slope
> m := EI*diff(vv,x$2): # Extract moment
> Q := EI*diff(vv,x$3): # Extract shear
> vv:
> plot(load,x=0..L,title=`LOADS`, color=blue);
> plot(Q,x=0..L,title=`SHEAR`, color=blue);
> plot(m,x=0..L,title=`BENDING MOMENT`, color=blue);
> plot(th,x=0..L,title=`BEAM SLOPE`, color=blue);
> plot(vv,x=0..L,title=`DEFLECTION`, color=blue);
E5003 – Ship Structures I 66
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E5003 – Ship Structures I 67
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Chapter 9: Indeterminate Beams – Force Method

part of the superstructure on an FPSO

Introduction
In this chapter we will
 Review the idea of indeterminate beams and one way to solve them
~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~
Transverse and Local Strength

Most of the local structure in a ship exists to resist lateral loads.

Example: The sketch below shows a bulkhead between the deck and inner bottom,
supported by one intermediate deck. The bulk cargo (liquid or granular) will exert a
lateral pressure on the bulkhead.


E5003 – Ship Structures I 68
© C.G.Daley

We can model the bulkhead frame as a pinned frame over 3 supports, subject to a
lateral load;

To solve this type of structure we need a method to solve indeterminate structures.

What does indeterminate mean? Determinate structures have a simple set of

supports, such that the support reactions can be found from considerations of rigid
body equilibrium alone. This means that there are just enough supports for
equilibrium to exist. This is normally 3 for 2D structures and normally 6 for 3D
structures. The number of supports is also the number of equilibrium conditions
that need to be satisfied.

The sketch below illustrates the difference between determinate and indeterminate
for a 2D beam.

Determinate Indeterminate
E5003 – Ship Structures I 69
© C.G.Daley

 Find the Reactions  Find the Reactions

 
 Then find the deflections  Then find the deflections

The reactions depend on the deflections

Reactions don‟t depend on deflections

 Equations for Reactions Equations for Reactions

  coupled
Equations for Deflections Equations for Deflections

There are two approaches for solving indeterminate systems. Both approaches use
the principle of superposition, by dividing the problem into two simpler problems,
soling the simpler problems and adding the two solutions.

The first method is called the Force Method (also called the Flexibility Method).
The idea for the force method is;

step  release internal forces* or external reactions until we have one or more
determinate systems
step  solve each determinate system, to find all reactions and deflections. Note
all incompatible deflections
step  re-solve the determinate structures with only a set of self-balancing
internal unit forces* (at internal releases) or unit reaction forces at
removed reactions. This solves the system for the internal or external
forces removed in . Observe the magnitude of incompatible deflections
that occur per unit force.
step a scale the unit forces to cause the opposite of the incompatible deflections
noted in 
step  Add solutions (everything: loads, reactions, deflections…) from  and a.
Note that this will result in no incompatible deflections.
*note: forces include both forces and moments
E5003 – Ship Structures I 70
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Overview of Force Method

The structure: a beam over multiple supports:

step  cut the structure to have one or more determinate systems

step  solve each system. Note  – an incompatible deflection.

E5003 – Ship Structures I 71
© C.G.Daley

step  re-solve the cut structures with self-balancing internal unit forces*
step a scale these forces (moments) to cause the opposite of the incompatible
deflections noted in 

step  Add solutions (everything: loads, reactions, deflections…) from  and

a. Note that this will result in no incompatible deflections.
E5003 – Ship Structures I 72
© C.G.Daley

Example of the FORCE Method:

Manual Solution

Problem:
1 - Find MA, RA, RB in terms of w, EI, L
2 – Find maximum displacement

Solution:
Part 1 – solve with MA released (denoted ‟ ). The
reason we do this is because the structure is
statically determinate.

The line load function is:

Reactions are found from static equilibrium:

The shear Q‟(x) is found by integrating the line load:

The moment M‟(x) is found by integrating the shear:

E5003 – Ship Structures I 73
© C.G.Daley

The slope ‟(x) is found by integrating the moment:

And finally the deflection y‟(x) is found by integrating

the slope:

This leaves us with one left unknown to find, which

is the slope at A. We use the boundary condition:

Substituting back gives;

Slope:

Deflection:

The gives us the first half of the solution. Now we

need to „correct‟ the solution, by removing the
rotation at A (in Part 2). This is done by applying a
moment at A, of just sufficient magnitude to cause -
‟A . This moment will be the true reaction moment
at A. All other responses in Part 2 are added to the
Part 1 responses (deflections, shear, moments, etc).
Responses can be added because the systems are
linear (superposition holds).
E5003 – Ship Structures I 74
© C.G.Daley

Part 2 – solve with just MA (denoted * ). This will let

us find the magnitude of MA* that will cause a
rotation opposite to 'A., which when added to the
results of Part 1 will create a „fixed‟ condition (no
rotation) at A. Initially MA* is unknown.

Reactions are found from static equilibrium:

The shear Q*(x) is found by:

The moment M*(x) is found by integrating the shear:

The slope *(x) is found by integrating the moment:

And finally the deflection y‟(x) is found by integrating

the slope:
E5003 – Ship Structures I 75
© C.G.Daley

To fine *A and M*A , we use:

Substituting back gives;

Reactions:

Shear:

Moment:

Slope:

Deflection:

This gives us the second half of the solution.

E5003 – Ship Structures I 76
© C.G.Daley

Now we sum the two parts together for the complete

solution:

This is the answer to the first question. The

maximum deflection is found where the slope is zero.
The full expression for the slope is:

We can create a new normalized variable z, which

ranges between 0 and 1. This gives us slope in a
simpler form:

To find the location of zero slope we set the term

inside the brackets above to zero, which can be
simplified to:

The solution of this equation will be the location of

maximum deflection. One way to solve this (which
can be done without derivatives or computers) is to
solve the equation for z iteratively. This can be done
on any hand-held calculator. We pick one of the z
terms (the square term here), and express z as a
function of z:
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0.62
This iterative equation might be expressed as:
0.6

0.58

0.56

Starting with .5, this will iterate to 0.5975.

0.54

Note: there are other possible iterative versions of

0.52

0.5

0.48
the z equation. Unfortunately, some are unstable and
0.48 0.5 0.52 0.54 0.56 0.58 0.6 0.62
so won‟t converge to an answer.

The equation for deflection is:

The final step in the solution:

This answer can be checked in Roark, which gives

the same answer (whew!). This completes the
problem.
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Chapter 9 – Problems.

3. Solve the example problem in L9 (above) by

removing the reaction RB (as shown). This creates
„cut‟ problem that is a cantilever beam.
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Chapter 10: Indeterminate Beams – Displacement Method

another kind of displacement

Introduction
In this chapter we will
 introduce the displacement method used to solve structural problems
 introduce the standard stiffness components for a beam in 2D and 3D
~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~
Indeterminate Problem

We start by considering the indeterminate beam as shown below. This could be

described as a fixed-pinned beam or a cantilever with a pinned end.

Find MA RA and RB

To solve this problem with the displacement (stiffness) method we create two sub-
problems, each simpler than the whole problem. Rather than removing a support
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(removing a force or moment), we remove a movement (i.e we completely fix the

structure). This becomes the problem marked * below. To the * problem, we add a
second problem, the ** problem, that fixes any errors that we created with the *
problem. In this case we have a moment MB* that should not exist, while we have a
B* that should not be zero. So, in the ** problem, we impose B**, (and only a B**)
sufficiently large to cause a moment MB** that is equal and opposite to MB*.

o fixed-fixed beam o applied moment at pin

o known solution o the moments and forces can be
o MA*=- MB*=pL2/12 found from the “stiffness” terms, as
o RA*=RB*=pL/2 shown below:
o MB**= B** 4EI/L
o MA**= B** 2EI/L
o RB**= - B** 6EI/L2
o RA**= B** 6EI/L2

To solve the problem we use;

MB**+ MB*=0
which gives;
B** 4EI/L - pL2/12 = 0

from this we can solve for B**;

B** = pL3/(48 EI) = 0

from this we can find all other ** terms;

MA**= pL3/(48 EI) 2EI/L = 1/24 pL2
RB**= - pL3/(48 EI) 6EI/L2 = - 1/8 pL
RA**= pL3/(48 EI) 6EI/L2 = 1/8 pL

from this we can find the reactions;

MA =MA* + MA** = pL2/12 + pL2/24 = 1/8 pL2
RB = RB* + RB** = - pL/8 + pL/2 = 3/8 pL
RA = RA* + RA** = pL/8 + pL/2 = 5/8 pL

The terms used to find MB**, MA**, RB** and RA** are called stiffness terms because
the are an „action per unit movement‟, such as a force per unit displacement or
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moment per unit rotation. They can also be a kind of „cross stiffness‟ such as a force
per unit rotation or a moment per unit displacement. In the case of the example
above, with the equations;

MB**= B** 4EI/L

MA**= B** 2EI/L
RB**= - B** 6EI/L2
RA**= B** 6EI/L2

The stiffness terms 4EI/L, 2EI/L, -6EI/L2 and 6EI/L2 are forces and moment „per
unit rotation‟. We will define these stiffness terms in the next section.

Stiffness Terms

When using the stiffness method, we always need to find a set of forces and
moments that occur when we impose a movement at a support. The
movement will correct a situation that involved the suppression of a
movement at a support. In our case here, the structure is a beam, and the
supports are at the ends of the beam. The supports prevent the ends of the
beam from moving. There are 3 possible movements at a support for a 2D
problem, and 6 for a 3D problem. Because of this we will define a standard
set of „degrees of freedom‟ for a beam. A „degree of freedom‟ can have either a
force or displacement, or a rotation or moment. The standard 2D degrees of
freedom for a beam are shown below;

2D beam = 6 degrees of freedom

The degrees of freedom follow the Cartesian system, with the right-hand rule.
These are essentially x, y, rotation (called rz). In general, to impose a unit
movement in one (and only one) of these degrees of freedom, we need to also
impose a set of forces/moments, The forces/moments must be in equilibrium.
These forces/moments will be „stiffnesses‟.

The mechanics are linear. This means that the set of forces/moments
corresponding to each movement can be added to those of any other
movement. A general solution for any set of movements of the degrees of
freedom can be found by superposition.

For now we will just consider the 2D case and derive the stiffness terms.
There are 6 degrees of freedom. For each degree of freedom, there are
potentially 6 forces or moments that develop. This means that there are a
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total of 36 stiffness terms. Any single term would be labeled kij, meaning the
force/moment at i due to a displacement/rotation at j. For example;

k11 = force at 1 due to unit displacement at 1

k41 = moment at 4 due to unit displacement at 1
k26 = force at 2 due to unit rotation at 6

All the terms can be written in matrix form as;

 k 11 k 12 k 13 k 14 k 15 k 16 
k k 22 k 23 k 24 k 25 k 26 
 21
k k 32 k 33 k 34 k 35 k 36 
K   31 
k 41 k 42 k 43 k 44 k 45 k 46 
k 51 k 52 k 53 k 54 k 55 k 56 
 
k 61 k 62 k 63 k 64 k 65 k 66 

We will now derive these 36 terms. Luckily they are not all unique.

Axial Terms

The axial terms are found by asking what set of forces is required to create a
unit displacement at d.o.f. #1 (and only #1);

For axial compression, the deflection under load is;

F1L F AE
1   1  1  k11 
AE 1 L

the force at d.o.f. #4 is equal and opposite to the force at #1;

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F4  AE
F 4  F1   k 41 
1 L

There are no other forces (at #2, 3, 5, 6), so we have;

F2
 k 21  0 and k 31  k 51  k 61  0
1
A displacement at 4 would require a similar set of forces, so that we can also
write;

AE  AE
k 44  , k 14  , k 24  k 34  k 54  k 64  0
L L

This has given us 12 terms, 1/3 of all the terms we need. Next we will find the
terms for the #2 and #5 direction.

Shear Terms

The shear terms are found from the set of forces is required to create a unit
displacement at d.o.f. #2 (and only #2);

For shear of this type, the deflection is;

F2 L3 F 12 EI
2   1  2  k 22 
12 EI 2 L3

Note: to derive this easily, think of the beam as two cantilevers, each L/2
long, with a point load at the end, equal to F2.
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The force at d.o.f. #5 is equal and opposite to the force at #2;

F5  12 EI
F 5  F 2   k 52 
2 L3

Following from the double cantilever notion, the end moments (M3, M6) are ;
L 6 EI
M 3  M 6  F2  k 32  k 62  2
2 L
There are no axial forces, so;
k 12  k 42  0

A displacement at #5 require a similar set of forces, so that we can also write;

12 EI  12 EI  6 EI
k 55  3 , k 25  3 , k 35  k 65  , k 15  k 45  0
L L L2

This has given us 12 more terms, for 2/3 of all the terms we need. Next we
will find the terms for the #3 and #6 direction.

Rotary Terms
The rotary terms are found from the set of forces/moments required to create
a unit rotation at d.o.f. #3 (and only #3);

For illustration and to find these stiffness terms we will solve the system. We
can draw the shear force, moment, slope and deflection diagrams as below;
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Q( x )  F2

M ( x)  M 3  F2  x

1  x2 
 ( x )  3    M 3 x  F 2  
EI  2 
1  x2 x3 
 ( x )   2  3 x    M 3  F2  
EI  2 6 

We can use the boundary conditions (3=1, 2=0, (L)=0,(L)=0) to find M3

and F2.
 1 L2 
( L )  0  1    M 3 L  F 2  

EI 2 
1  L 2
L3 
(L)  0  0  L   M 3  F2  
EI  2 6 

These two equations can be solved to get;

4 EI 6 EI
M3  , F2 
L L2
from these we can find;

2 EI  6 EI
M6  , F5 
L L2

This allows to find the stiffness terms;

4 EI 2 EI 6 EI  6 EI
k 33  , k 63  k 23  2 , k 53  , k 13  k 43  0
L L L L2
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A rotation at #6 require a similar set of forces, so that we can also write;

4 EI 2 EI 6 EI  6 EI
k 66  , k 36  k 26  2 , k 56  , k 16  k 46  0
L L L L2

We can collect all these terms in the matrix;

 AE  AE 
 L 0 0 0 0 
L
 12 EI 6 EI  12 EI 6 EI 
 0 0 
 L3 L2 L3 L2 
 0 6 EI 4 EI  6 EI 2 EI 
0
 L2 L L2 L 
K  
 AE AE
 0 0 0 0 
 L L 
 0  12 EI  6 EI 12 EI  6 EI 
0
 L3 L2 L3 L2 
 6 EI 2 EI  6 EI 4 EI 
 0 L2 L
0
L2 L 

Note that the matrix is symmetrical. This means that terms such as k35
(moment at #3 due to displacement at #5) is equal to k35 (force at #5 due to
rotation at #3). This may seem quite odd that these two items would be equal.
We will examine this in the next Chapter.

The standard 3D degrees of freedom for a beam are shown below;

3D beam = 12 degrees of freedom

The K matrix for a 3D beam is a 12x12 (144 terms).

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Chapter 10 – Problems.

1. Solve the pinned-pinned beam by using the displacement method as sketched

below. The solution for the fixed-fixed beam is the same as above. Then it is
necessary to show that MB*+MB**+MB***=0 and MA*+MA**+MA***=0.
Note: MA** = ½ MB**, and MB*** = ½ MA***.

2. Describe how you would solve the beam shown below by using the
displacement method.
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3. For the simple beam shown below, derive the shear stiffness terms (i.e k15 to k65)

4. Solve the beam shown below using the stiffness method. Find the reactions at A and B,
and the deflection at B.

ANS: MA= 166667 N-m, MB = 83333N-m B = -.2082m

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Chapter 11: Energy Methods in Structural Analysis

conserving energy by staying alongside

Introduction
In this chapter we will
 Discuss application of energy methods in structural analysis
 Show how conservation of energy conservation to the symmetry of
structural stiffness terms
~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~
Energy Methods

Structural analysis is concerned with forces, deflections, stresses and strains. All
these involve energy. An analysis of energy can be a way to simply the structural
analysis. Energy is a scalar, and must be conserved, somehow. In some cases the
mechanical work done by a force is converted to heat by friction:

In some cases the mechanical work done by a force is converted to elastic

potential energy in a spring. Potential energy (in a spring or in a
gravitational field) can later be recovered:
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Consider a body subject to a simple axial load:

The above is correct for situations where axial stresses dominate, as in

column compression or simple beam bending. This does not take shear strain
energy into account.
Example: derive formula for Cantilever beam deflection using energy
methods.

Consider a simple cantilever with rectangular cross section.

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Start with Energy Balance equation:

External work done by the applied load P is balanced by the elastic potential
energy stored in the beam;

In this case we assume that the stress is the result of bending and we find the
stress from;

and

which lets us write;

We can re-write dvol as w dx dy and use :

The last part of the above equation is the moment of inertia:

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This simplifies the problem to:

Which gives the final and correct answer:

Betti-Maxwell Reciprocal Theorem

The Betti-Maxwell theorem states that for any linear elastic body (also called a
Hookean body), that the movement at a d.o.f. A, caused by the application of a
force/moment F at a d.o.f. B, is exactly the same as the movement at a d.o.f. B,
caused by the application of a force/moment F at a d.o.f. A. In the sketch below,
refers to the movement at due to the application of a force at . So we can write the
Betti-Maxwell theorm as;
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Proof:
As a linear system, superposition will hold. The structure will assume the same
final position regardless of the order of application of the forces. This means that
the same stored elastic energy will exist in either case. These are „conservative‟
systems, meaning that all work done by the loads is converted to elastic potential
energy (and is „conserved‟ to be recovered later). We will apply F to the structure in
two places, and compare the work done when we change the order in which we
apply the forces.

When F is applied at both 1 and 2, the total deflection at 1 and 2 will be;

If we imagine applying F at 1 first, and then at 2, the work done will be;

If we imagine applying F at 2 first, and then at 1, the work done will be;

The work done will be the same, so;

Hence Betti-Maxwell is proven.

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Chapter 11 – Problems.

1. Find the location of the force F so that  is a maximum. Hint: you can
use the symmetry of Betti-Maxwell.
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Chapter 12: The Moment Distribution Method

laying
the first transatlantic cable from the Great Eastern. Another kind of distribution.

Introduction
In this chapter we will
 Describe the moment distribution methods for solving indeterminate
beams
~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~

Overview

The moment distribution method is a type of displacement (stiffness) method

because it makes use of the stiffness terms we derived earlier. It is particularly
useful for solving problems involving beams over multiple supports, and frames
with moment connections. It is what can be termed a „relaxation‟ method. This
refers to the iterative way that errors are „relaxed‟. The method can be solved
manually on paper with a simple calculator, and was once the dominant method
used in professional practice. These days it can easily be solved with a spreadsheet,
but is seldom used professionally. Its current value is in helping students develop
an understanding of structural behavior. The essence of structures is the
interconnected behavior of structural elements. The moment distribution method is
all about the way neighboring elements interact.
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The method was developed by Prof. Hardy Cross in the

1920s and 30s. Cross studied at MIT and Harvard, taught at
Brown, Illinois and Yale and consulted extensively.

Prof. Hardy Cross described his procedure as follows:

" The method of moment distribution is this:

1. Imagine all joints in the structure held so that they cannot rotate
and compute the moments at the ends of the members for this condition;
2. At each joint distribute the unbalanced fixed-end moment among the connecting members in
proportion to the constant for each member defined as "stiffness";
3. Multiply the moment distributed to each member at a joint by the carry-over factor at the
end of the member and set this product at the other end of the member;
4. Distribute these moments just "carried over";
5. Repeat the process until the moments to be carried over are small enough to be neglected;
and
6. Add all moments - fixed-end moments, distributed moments, moments carried over - at each
end of each member to obtain the true moment at the end."

Description of Method
The moment distribution method is a way to solve indeterminate structures
comprised of beams. The method works for continuous beams over multiple
supports and for frames. In its basic form it does not consider joint translation. All
joints are only assumed to rotate, as would occur at a pin or roller support, or at a
frame connection (beams to column) where sway is prevented. Subsidence of a
support can easily be handled. An extended version can treat sway of a frame
system.

Fixed End Moments – FEM : To start the procedure, all joint are considered fixed and
all fixed-end moments are calculated. One example of fixed end moments is shown
below for a beam with a central point force. The moments are expressed as true
moments acting on the supports. This is an important point. Note that both end
moments in the sketch cause concave downward bending, and would this have the
same sign in a bending moment diagram. But here they have opposite true senses
(clockwise on left and counterclockwise on right) and so have opposite signs. And we
keep tract of the moments acting from the beam, not the reactions by the support.
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Moment Distribution factors - : At each joint where two or more beams connect, each
beam provides part of the rotary stiffness. When an external moment is applied to
the joint, it rotates as a unit, with each of the connecting beams resisting part of the
total moment. The portion of the total is called the moment distribution factor - .
For each beam the moment will be :
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Chapter 12 – Problems.
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4. A 3 bar frame is shown below.

a) Solve for the moments using the moment distribution method.
b) Sketch the deformed shape.
c) Find the vertical reaction at the pin (the right hand end).

5. Solve the frame using the MDM method (suggest you use a spreadsheet).

6. Solve the frame using the MDM method (suggest you use a spreadsheet).
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7. For the case shown below, set up and fill in the first two cycles of the Moment
Distribution calculations.

Addendum
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Chapter 13: The Moment Distribution Method with Sway

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This is the solution of Problem #1:

This is the solution of Problem #2:

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This is the solution of Problem #2, scaled to counteract the pin force from problem
#1 (call this #2a):

This is the sum of Problem #1 +#2a, which is the frame with roller solution. The
values are moments at the locations indicated.

1 2 3 4 5
A B C D E F G H
MDM 0.0 183.89 -294.13 110.24 127.84 -127.84 82.27 5.59
BEAM3D 0.0 183.8 -294.4 110.6 127.3 -127.3 83.9 6.47

To confirm these values independently, the same problem was analyzed in the DnV
program BEAM3D. The values shown above correspond very well with the MDM
results. The plots from BEAM3D are shown below;
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1 2 3

Z
4

bending moment diagram, and reactions.

1 2 3

X 4

shear force (red), bending moment and deflections (exaggerated)

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Chapter 13 – Problems.

1. Solve the frame using the MDM method (suggest you use a spreadsheet).

2. A 3 bar frame is shown below.

d) Solve for the moments using the moment distribution method.
e) Sketch the deformed shape.
f) Find the vertical reaction at the pin (the right hand end).
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Chapter 14: Matrix Structural Analysis

Introduction
In this chapter we will
 Discuss a very general method to analyze structures, to give bending
moments and axial forces in general frame structures.
~~~~~~
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Chapter 14 – Problems.

1. For the 4-bar frame shown below, the 2D solution is found by solving 12
equations in matrix form shown beneath. For the case of the loads and
boundary conditions as shown, fill in the 14 columns (there is 1 column for
forces, 1 for displacements and 12 in the stiffness matrix), with any known
values. In the force and displacement vectors, write in a zero (0) for known
zero values and the letter X or variable name for other unknown values. In
the stiffness matrix write a 0 for the zero terms and the letter K for a non-
zero stiffness terms. You only need to fill in the upper half of the stiffness
matrix. You don‟t need any equations or numbers (other than 0).
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Chapter 15 Overview of Finite Element Theory

ANSYS analysis results

Introduction
In this chapter we will
 introduce the 2D finite element called the constant stress triangle
(cst)
 show how to derive the element stiffness and all output values from
energy considerations
~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~
Finite element method

Recall that for a beam, we can relate the end loads by a stiffness equation in matrix
form;

F   K x

We can find the K terms for a beam by solving the beam bending equation for
various end movements. To find the displacement of some point along the beam
(at x ) we could solve the system for the displaced shape. We would find that the
displacements would be;

dx  d 1  x ( d 4  d 1 ) (why so simple?)
and
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dy  d 2  f ( x , d 3 , d 5 , d 6 ) (why is this more complex?)

For this beam element, we made use of what is called „beam theory‟, to solve for the
loads and deflections under certain loading conditions.

However, in the case of most finite elements, such as 2D planar elements, plate
elements, and solid elements, we will not start from some general analytical
solution of a loaded membrane, plate or solid. These solutions are too complex and
will not give practical results. Instead, we assume some very simple behaviors,
highly idealized, but which satisfy the basic requirements for equilibrium (i.e. forces
balance, energy is conserved). With this approach, the single element does not really
model the behavior or a comparable real solid object of the same shape. This is ok,
because the aggregate behavior of a set of these simple elements will model the
behavior quite well. This is something like modeling a smooth curve as a series of
straight lines (even horizontal steps). This is locally wrong, but overall quite
accurate.

Constant Stress Triangle

To illustrate the way that finite elements are formulated, we will derive the
full description of an element called the constant stress triangle (cst). This is
a standard 2D element that is available in most finite element models.
Consider a 2D element which is only able to take in-plane stress. The three
corners of the triangle can only move in the plane.

For this element the force balance is;

F  K e
6   6 x 6 6 

We want to determine the element stiffness matrix Ke , and we want it to be

valid for any triangle;
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Chapter 15 – Problems

1. The displacement functions of the constant stress triangular element are:

u(x,y) = C1 + C2 x + C3 y
v(x,y) = C4 + C5 x + C6 y

where u represents the x-translation of any point (x,y) and v represents the y-
translation of the point.

A beam has only one coordinate (x). However, most beam models would allow
a point on the beam to rotate as well as translate. So, construct 3 simple
displacement functions;
u(x),
v(x),
(x),
of a „beam element‟, using the same logic as was used to create the
displacement functions of the constant stress triangular element.
Discuss the differences between this approach and Matrix structural
analysis.
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Chapter 16: Hull Girder Shear Stresses

Ship in Waves (IOT web site)

Introduction
In this Chapter we will
 Examine vertical shear in a ship
 Describe the idea of shear flow.
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Chapter 16 – Problems.

1. An open section is shown below. This is the cross section of a long folded steel plate. The
cross section is subject to a shear force of 2 MN

a) Solve the shear flow, plot it and then also show the shear stress values. (10)
b) If this is a section of a long cantilever (fixed at one end and free at the other) explain
what types of deformations would you expect to see. (5)
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Chapter 17: Shear Stresses in multi-cell sections

Introduction
In this Chapter we will
 Discuss indeterminate shear flow
 Calculate shear slip in a cut section.
 Do an example of shear flow in a ship
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Chapter 17 – Problems.

1. Solve the shear flow in the following section of a tanker. Ignore the radius of
the bilge.
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Chapter 18: Shear Flow in adjacent Closed Cells

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Chapter 18 – Problems.

1. Solve the shear flow in the following section of a tanker. Ignore the radius of
the bilge.
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Chapter 19: Torsion in ships

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Chapter 19 – Problems.

1. A hollow closed section is made of plate of uniform thickness ‘t’ . A torsional moment of
80 MN-m is applied. To have the maximum shear stress equal to 135 MPa, what value
should t be ?
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Chapter 20: Shear Center and Shear Lag in Ship

Structures

ANSYS analysis results

Introduction
In this Chapter we will
 Discuss the idea of the shear center of a frame
 Describe the idea of shear lag and the notion of effective width.
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2. The following figure shows 4 x-sections. Identify the location of the shear center in each
case (i.e which letter?). You should sketch the shear flow to help identify the location.
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3. When the vertical force F is applied to this section, how will the cantilever beam deform?
Explain
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Chapter 21: Plate Bending

ANSYS analysis results

Introduction
In this chapter we will
 Discuss the mechanics of plate bending
 Describe the idea of shear lag and the notion of effective width.
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Chapter 22: Hull Girder Stress Assessment

or
Where is the factor of safety?
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Hull Girder Stresses

The IACS UR S11 forms the basis of the wave bending moments in all the various
IACS member rule systems, including the new joint bulker and joint tanker rules.
The wave bending moment is defined as:

Mw  .190  Cw  L2  B  CB hogging moment in kN-m (4.31)

Where
L: ship length in m
B: ship breadth in m
CB: block coefficient
3
 300  L  2
Cw: wave height coefficient: Cw  10.75   for 90m < L < 300m
 100 

Equation 4.31 can be derived from the sketch below, indicating that there is no obvious
or significant factor of safety in 4.31. The term Cw is the wave height (ie. 2a in sketch
below) . In the rules it is called a ‘coefficient, but is looks and sounds and smells like a
wave height.

For a 200m ship, Cw is the same as an L/20 wave. For a 300m ship Cw is the same
as a .6rootL wave (see Lect5). These are approximately 10m (33ft) waves. Such
waves are not common, but are also not rare in the north Atlantic.
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Design Wave Heights

20
18
16

Wave Height [m]

14
12
10
8 L/20
6 .60L^.5
4 2 L^.3
2 Cw
0
50 100 150 200 250 300 350
Ship Length [m]

Figure 4.8: Comparison of Cw with Design Wave Heights

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Clearly the plate has lots of reserve against lateral load

But what about the reserve against compressive buckling and tensile tearing?

Does the corrosion allowance save the ship?

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Appendix
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