2

CHAPTER
THERMODYNAMICS I
Some
Introductory
Concepts and
Definitions
2-1 Closed ,Open and Isolated Systems
Thermodynamic System
A quantity of matter or a region in space chosen for study.

Surroundings
Everything external to the system.

Boundary
Surface that separates the system from the surrounding. It may be fixed or movable

2
Closed system (Control mass)
A fixed amount of mass chosen for study (no
mass can cross its boundary). Heat and work
can cross the boundary, volume may also
change.
e.g. piston cylinder.

Open system (Control volume)

A selected region chosen for study. Mass, heat
and work can cross its boundary, volume may
also change.
e.g. water heater, car radiator, turbine, nozzle.

Isolated system
A system closed to mass, heat and work flows.
It is not affected by the surroundings.
3
Open Systems

4
 How do we describe this system?

Eg. 2nd year Mechanical & Industrial Engineering

student

Described by
1st Properties
2nd Phase - identifying whether the system is
homogeneous or heterogeneous
3rd State- its the condition of the system at which it exists
4th Equilibrium -thermodynamics deals with from one
equilibrium state to the other equilibrium state.
5th Process – any change from one state to another
2.2. Property, State, Process and Equilibrium; Phase
Thermodynamic Property
A measurable quantity that defines the condition of a system
e.g. temperature T
pressure P
mass m
volume V
density ρ

The property is independent of the path used to arrive at

the system condition.

Another useful property is

Specific volume (v)
defined as the volume of a unit mass.

volume 1
specific volume v  (m3/kg)
mass 
volume
molal specific volume v (m3/mol)
no. of moles

6
Extensive and Intensive properties
Properties are of 2 types
Intensive properties Independent of mass. e.g. P, T, v, ρ

Extensive properties Change with mass. e.g. m, V, Energy

each 
consider a quantity of substance part same intensive property

divide into 2 parts will  1/2 extensive property
have

7
Specific extensive properties
Extensive properties per unit mass are called Specific properties

V
v (specific volume)
m
e.g.
E
e (specific energy)
m

Phase
Phase – a phase is defined as a quantity of matter that is homogeneous throughout in
both chemical composition and physical structure.

8
A substance can be at various
pressures & temperatures or in various
states

State
Condition of a system identified by properties (e.g. T, P, v).
In a given state each property has 1 value.

Properties are defined when the system is in

Equilibrium
No unbalance exist in the system, and values of properties (T, P etc.) remain the same
when it is isolated from the surroundings.
Thermal equilibrium: temperature of system does not change when it is isolated from surroundings
Mechanical equilibrium: pressure of system does not change when it is isolated from surroundings
Chemical equilibrium: chemical composition does not change when it is isolated from surroundings
9
 The state postulate
The state of a simple compressible system is completely
specified by 2 independent intensive properties

10
Process
The transformation of a system from one state to another state through a
succession of states

called State 2 called

Initial state Process
Final state
P = 100 kPa State 1
P = 100 kPa
T = 25oC T = 40oC

The state of a system is defined when it is in equilibrium.

If we change the state very fast it is not in equilibrium during the process (non-equilibrium process)
If we change it slowly then the system is in equilibrium during the process (quasi-equilibrium process)

Quasi-equilibrium process (ideal process)

The system is very near to equilibrium in all successive states during the process.
Non-equilibrium process
The system is not in equilibrium during the process. States during the process are undefined
We can only define the initial and final states.
11
Quasi-equilibrium process and Non-equilibrium process

12
Processes and Cycles
Properties like pressure (P) and volume (V) can be plotted during a process

Cycles
A cycle is a series of
processes in which the initial
state of the first process is
identical to the final state of
the last process.

13
In most of the processes that we will study, one
thermodynamic property is held constant
Process Property held
constant
Isobaric Pressure
Isothermal Temperature
Isochoric Volume
Isentropic Entropy
2.3 Dimensions and Units
time - seconds (s)
Fundamental length - meter (m) RFRESH!!!!

Dimensions mass - kilogram (kg)
quantity - mole
1 mole of a substance contains 6.0231023 atoms/molecules
1 mole has mass = moleculer mass of that substances (in grams)
e.g. 1 mole of Carbon = 12g mass
1 kilomole of C = 12kg mass
n kilomole of a substance = nM kg mass
i.e m
  n M

mass in kg no. of moles molecular mass
in kg / kmole

15
2.3 Dimensions and Units (contd.)
Prefix

Derived force - F  ma newtons (N)


Dimensions work - W  F x joule (J or N.m)

Prefix
103  kilo k 103  milli m
106  mega M 106  micro 
109  giga G 109  nano n
1012  tera T 1012  pico p

16
2.4. Some Basic Properties & Zero Law Units
normal force 1 Pascal  Pa   1N / m2
P
area 1 bar  105 Pa  0.1MPa
1 atm  101325Pa  101.325kPa

Pabsolute – measured relative to

evacuated box (absolute zero)
`
Pressure
Pgauge – measured relative to local
atmoshpheric pressure

In thermodynamics we use absolute pressure (P)

devices or instruments measure gauge pressure (Pg)
which is the pressure above or below the atmospheric pressure (Patm or P0)
P  Patm  Pg where Patm  P0  101.325 kPa at sea level
17
2.4. Some Basic Properties (Cont…) Units
normal force 1 Pascal  Pa   1N / m2
P
area 1 bar  105 Pa  0.1MPa
1 atm  101325Pa  101.325kPa

In thermodynamics we use absolute pressure (P)

devices or instruments measure gauge pressure (Pg)
which is the pressure above or below the atmospheric pressure (Patm or P0)
P  Patm  Pg where Patm  P0  101.325 kPa at sea level
18
2.4.1 Some Basic Properties: Pressure Patm
Manometer: used to measure gauge pressure
Points 1 and 2 at the same height and
connected by the same liquid have the
same pressure. i.e.
F1 F2 P
P1  P2 or 
A1 A2
weight of liquid above 2
P  P1  P2  Patm 
cross-sectional area
  volume  g   area  h  g
 Patm   Patm 
area area
  density of measuring liquid
P  Patm  hg
g  9.81m / s2
Barometer: used to measure absolute pressure
PB  PC  hg but PC  0 (i.e. vaccum)
 PB   gh
19
2.4.1 Some Basic Properties: Pressure
Piston and Cylinder
At equilibrium
Fext = P.AP
If the system is heated the free moving piston
will move to adjust the inside pressure so
that Fext = P.AP

External forces Fext

1) Due to atmospheric pressure, P0AP
2) Due to mass of piston, mPg
3) Due to a spring, kx
Fext  P0 AP  mp g  kspring x
mp g k
V F Pext  P0   2V
x & Pext  ext AP AP
Ap AP

PV diagram
Plot of pressure inside the cylinder against it’s volume

20
 2.4.2 Some Basic Properties: Pressure
Temperature: a thermodynamic property that is the
measure of the energy content of a mass.
0
C 0
F K R
Upper BP of H2O BP of H2O TP of H2O TP of H2O
Limit =100 =212 =273.15 = 459.69

Lower FP of H2O FP of H2O T=0 (absolute T=0 (absolute

Limit =0 =32 zero) zero)

Relation Linear Linear Linear Linear

Change 41 0C to 0F ?
2.4.2 The Zero law of thermodynamics
Temperature: Degree of hotness of coldness

0th law of thermodynamics

When 2 bodies have equality of temperature with a 3rd body, then they have equality of
temperature with each other.

TA TB

TC

if TA  TC & TB  TC
then TA  TB
22
2.4.2 The Zero law of thermodynamics
Temperature Scales: To relate temperatures that we read from different
devices we need a standard scale of temperature
In ME2101 we use the Celsius (oC) and Kelvin (K) scales.
Ice point (0 oC)
The temperature of a mixture of ice and water in equilibrium at a
pressure of 1 atmosphere.

Steam point (100 oC)

The temperature of water and steam which are in equilibrium at
a pressure of 1 atmosphere.

Triple point of water (0.01oC)

A single fixed point at a state in which the solid, liquid and vapor
phases of water all exist in equilibrium.

Absolute scale of temperature:

A temperature scale independent of any thermometric substance
K o C  273.15 note that T  in K   T  in oC 
23
2.1.

24
Example 2.2. (pg. 35 , Q#9)