CHAPTER

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THERMODYNAMICS I
Introduction
 Defintion of Thermodynamics
• Therme – heat & dynamics - motion
• The word Thermodynamics was used for the
first time in 1849 by Lord Kelvin.
• Thermodynamics
– Describes macroscopic properties of equilibrium
systems.
– Entirely empirical
– Built on 4 laws and “Simple” Mathematics
 Lord Kelvin(William Thomson) (1824-1907)

Famous for:

1. Devising the absolute temperature scale, now called the 'Kelvin scale'
2. Formulating the second law of thermodynamics
3. Working to install telegraph cables under the Atlantic.
 Laws of Thermodynamics
• The Zero Law – Defines Temperature (T)
• 1st Law – Defines Energy (U)
– Simply an expression of the conservation of energy
principle.
• 2nd Law – Defines Entropy (S)
– Energy has quality as well as quantity – actual
processes occur in the direction of decreasing
quality of energy (Eg. Cup of Coffee)

• 3rd Law – Gives numerical value to Entropy

 Defintions of Thermodynamics (cont...)

• Thermodynamics involves the storage,

transformation, and transfer of energy
• Energy is stored as
– internal energy (due to temp.),
– kinetic energy (due to motion),
– potential energy (due to elevation), and
– chemical energy (due to chemical compostion).
 Defintions of Thermodynamics (cont...)

Classical thermodynamics: A macroscopic approach

to the study of thermodynamics that does not require a
knowledge of the behavior of individual particles
(continuum). - EASY
Statistical thermodynamics: A microscopic approach,
based on the average behavior of large groups of
individual particles. – NOT EASY!
 Applications of
Thermodynamics

The human body

Air-conditioning Airplanes
systems

Car radiators Power plants Refrigeration systems

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Applications of this course

Power plant
(or Heat engine)

Refrigerator
(or Air-conditioner)
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Applications of this course
Example Heat transfer to
cooling water or
atmospheric air

Fuel + Air Movement of car

Heat engine
e.g. Car engine or
(or power plant)
Burn to produce Electrical energy
HEAT WORK

Products of combustion
Exhaust

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 Some Energy Conversion Applications

1. Simple Steam Power Plant ( heat in to mechanical

energy then in to electrical energy)
2. Fuel Cells (chemical reaction in to electric current)

3. Thermoelectric Generator ( heat in to

electricity/transform electrical energy into thermal
power)
4. Thermoionic Generators ( heat in to electricity)
Simple Steam Power Plant

The Four Basic components

of a steam power plant are
 Steam Generator
(Boiler)
 Turbine
 Condenser
 Pump

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Basic Concepts and Definitions
1-1 Closed ,Open and Isolated Systems
Thermodynamic System
A quantity of matter or a region in space chosen for study.

Surroundings
Everything external to the system.

Boundary
Surface that separates the system from the surrounding. It may be fixed or movable

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Closed system (Control mass)
A fixed amount of mass chosen for study (no
mass can cross its boundary). Heat and work
can cross the boundary, volume may also
change.
e.g. piston cylinder.

Open system (Control volume)

A selected region chosen for study. Mass, heat
and work can cross its boundary, volume may
also change.
e.g. water heater, car radiator, turbine, nozzle.

Isolated system
A system closed to mass, heat and work flows.
It is not affected by the surroundings.

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Open Systems

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1.2. Property, State, Process and Equilibrium
Thermodynamic Property
A measurable quantity that defines the condition of a system
e.g. temperature T
pressure P
mass m
volume V
density ρ

The property is independent of the path used to arrive at

the system condition.

Another useful property is

Specific volume (v)
defined as the volume of a unit mass.
volume 1
specific volume v  (m3 /kg)
mass 
volume
molal specific volume v  (m3 /mol)
no. of moles

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Extensive and Intensive properties
Properties are of 2 types
Intensive properties Independent of mass. e.g. P, T, v, ρ

Extensive properties Change with mass. e.g. m, V, Energy

each 
consider a quantity of substance part  same intensive property

divide into 2 parts will  1/2 extensive property
have 
Extensive properties per unit
mass are called
Specific extensive properties

V
v (specific volume)
m
e.g.
E
e (specific energy)
m
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Density and Specific gravity
A substance can be at various
pressures & temperatures or in various
states

State
Condition of a system identified by properties (e.g. T, P, v).
In a given state each property has 1 value.

Equilibrium
Properties are defined when the system is in equilibrium.
No unbalance exist in the system, and values of properties (T, P etc.) remain the same
when it is isolated from the surroundings.

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Equilibrium ( Cont…)

Thermal equilibrium: temperature of system does not change when

it is isolated from surroundings
Mechanical equilibrium: pressure of system does not change when it
is isolated from surroundings
Chemical equilibrium: chemical composition does not change when
it is isolated from surroundings
Phase equilibrium: If a system involves multiple phases and when
the mass of each phase reaches an equilibrium level and stays there.
 The state postulate

The state of a simple compressible system is completely specified

by 2 independent intensive properties

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Simple compressible system: If a system involves no electrical,
magnetic, gravitational, motion, and surface tension effects.
Process
The transformation of a system from one state to another state through a
succession of states

called State 2 called

Initial state Process
Final state
P = 100 kPa State 1
P = 100 kPa
T = 25oC T = 40oC

Any change that a system undergoes from one

equilibrium state to another is called a process,
and the series of states through which a system
passes during a process is called the path of the
process
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• The state of a system is defined when it is in equilibrium.
• If we change the state very fast it is not in equilibrium during
the process (non-equilibrium process)
• If we change it slowly then the system is in equilibrium during
the process (quasi-equilibrium process)
Quasi-equilibrium process (ideal process)
• The system is very near to equilibrium in all successive states
during the process.
Non-equilibrium process
• The system is not in equilibrium during the process. States
during the process are undefined. We can only define the initial
and final states.
 Quasi-equilibrium process and Non-equilibrium process

It should be pointed out that a quasi-equilibrium process is an idealized process

and is not a true representation of an actual process. But many actual processes
closely approximate it, and they can be modeled as quasi-equilibrium with
negligible error. 25
Properties like pressure (P) and volume (V) can be plotted during a process

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In most of the processes that we will study, one thermodynamic
property is held constant
Process Property held constant

Isobaric Pressure

Isothermal Temperature

Isochoric/Isometric Specific Volume

Isentropic Entropy
 Cycle

• A system is said to have undergone a cycle if it returns

to its initial state at the end of the process. That is, for a
cycle the initial and final states are identical.
Cycle ( Cont …)
The Steady-Flow Process

The terms steady and uniform are

used frequently in engineering,
and thus it is important to have a
clear understanding of their
meanings. The term steady
implies no change with time. The
opposite of steady is unsteady, or
transient.
1.3 Dimensions and Units
 time - seconds (s)
Fundamental length - meter (m)

Dimensions mass - kilogram (kg)
quantity - mole
1 mole of a substance contains 6.023 1023 atoms/molecules
1 mole has mass = moleculer mass of that substances (in grams)
e.g. 1 mole of Carbon = 12g mass
1 kilomole of C = 12kg mass
n kilomole of a substance = nM kg mass
i.e m
  n M

mass in kg no. of moles molecular mass
in kg / kmole

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1.3 Dimensions and Units (contd.)

Derived force - F ma newtons (N)


Dimensions  work - W F x joule (J or N.m)

Prefix
103  kilo k 10  3  milli m
106  mega M 10 6  micro 
109  giga G 10 9  nano n
1012  tera T 10 12  pico p

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1.4. Some Basic Properties : Pressure
Units
normal force 1 Pascal  Pa  1N / m 2
P
area 1 bar 105 Pa 0.1MPa
1 atm 101325 Pa 101.325kPa

Pabsolute – measured relative to

evacuated box (absolute zero)
`
Pressure
Pgauge – measured relative to local
atmoshpheric pressure
In thermodynamics we use absolute pressure (P)
devices or instruments measure gauge pressure (Pg)

which is the pressure above or below the atmospheric pressure (Patm or P0)
P Patm  Pg where Patm P0 101.325 kPa at sea level
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The actual pressure at a given position is called the absolute pressure, and it is measured
relative to absolute vacuum (i.e., absolute zero pressure).
The difference between the absolute pressure and the local atmospheric pressure. This
difference is called the gage pressure.

Pressures below atmospheric pressure are called vacuum pressures and are measured by
vacuum gages that indicate the difference between the atmospheric pressure and the
absolute pressure.

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Common pressure measuring devices Patm
1. Manometer: used to measure gauge pressure

Points 1 and 2 at the same height and

connected by the same liquid have the P
same pressure. i.e.

F1 F2
P1 P2 or 
A1 A2
weight of liquid above 2
P P1 P2 Patm 
cross-sectional area
 volume g  area h g
Patm  Patm 
area area
 density of measuring liquid
P Patm   hg
g 9.81m / s 2
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2. Barometer: used to measure atmospheric pressure
PB PC   hg but PC 0 (i.e. vaccum)
 PB  gh
Pressure in Piston and Cylinder
Piston and Cylinder
At equilibrium
Fext = P.AP
If the system is heated the free moving piston
will move to adjust the inside pressure so
that Fext = P.AP

External forces (Fext )

1) Due to atmospheric pressure, P0AP
2) Due to mass of piston, mPg
3) Due to a spring, kx
Fext P0 AP  m p g  k spring x
mp g k
V Fext Pext P0   2V
x & Pext  AP AP
Ap AP

PV diagram
Plot of pressure inside the cylinder against it’s volume

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1.5. Temperature and the Zero law of thermodynamics
Temperature: Degree of hotness of coldness

0th law of thermodynamics

When 2 bodies have equality of temperature with a 3rd body, then they have equality of
temperature with each other.

TA TB

TC

if TA TC & TB TC

then TA TB
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• The zeroth law of thermodynamics: If two bodies are in
thermal equilibrium with a third body, they are also in
thermal equilibrium with each other.

• By replacing the third body with a thermometer, the

zeroth law can be restated as two bodies are in thermal
equilibrium if both have the same temperature, even if
they are not in contact.
 Temperature Scale
Temperature Scales: To relate temperatures that we read from different devices we need
a standard scale of temperature. The temperature scales used in the SI and in the English
system today are the Celsius scale and the Fahrenheit scale respectively.
In this course we use the Celsius (oC) and Kelvin (K) scales.

Ice point (0 oC)

The temperature of a mixture of ice and water in equilibrium at a
pressure of 1 atmosphere.

Steam point (100 oC)

The temperature of water and steam which are in equilibrium at
a pressure of 1 atmosphere.

Triple point of water (0.01oC)

A single fixed point at a state in which the solid, liquid and vapor
phases of water all exist in equilibrium.

Absolute scale of temperature:

A temperature scale independent of any thermometric substance
K o C  273.15 note that T in K  T in oC 
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In thermodynamics, it is very desirable to have a temperature scale that is
independent of the properties of any substance or substances. Such a temperature
scale is called a thermodynamic temperature scale.
• Kelvin scale (SI) and Rankine scale (English)
 PROBLEM-SOLVING TECHNIQUE
• Step 1: Problem Statement
• Step 2: Schematic
• Step 3: Assumptions and Approximations
• Step 4: Physical Laws
• Step 5: Properties
• Step 6: Calculations
• Step 7: Reasoning, Verification, and Discussion
 Summary
• Define thermodynamics
• Define system (closed and open system)
• Define property
• Define state
• Define process and path
• What does a state postulate say?
• What is thermodynamics cycle?
• When is a system is in thermodynamic
equilibrium?
• Define steady state.