INTERNET PROTOCOL (IP)

AND SUBNETTING

1
OBJECTIVES
 Understand IP Addressing and
Classes
 Describe the operation and benefits of
using private and public IP addressing
 Implement static and dynamic
addressing services for hosts in a LAN
environment.
 Subnetting
2
IP ADDRESSING
 An IP address is a numeric identifier
assigned to each machine on an IP
network.
 It designates the specific location of a
device on the network.
 IP addressing was designed to allow
hosts on one network to communicate
with a host on a different network
regardless of the type of LANs the hosts
are participating in.
3
4
 IP TERMINOLOGY
 BIT: A bit is one digit, either a 1 or a 0.
 BYTE: A byte is 8 bits.
 OCTET: An octet, made up of 8 bits, is
just an ordinary 8-bit binary number.
In this chapter, the terms byte and
octet are completely interchangeable.

5
 192.168.1.2
 The address is split in blocks. Each
block is separated from the other with
dots.
 IP addresses are composed of four
blocks. Each of the four blocks is called
an octet (the name octet comes from the
fact that each block is composed of eight
bits).
 Each octet’s allowed value ranges from 0
to 255. 6
BINARY AND DECIMAL
CONVERSION

7
UNDERSTANDING THE POWERS
OF 2

8
 IP ADDRESSES
 Every IP Address has a node portion and a
network portion.

IP Address: 192.168.5.201
Network Portion: 192.168.5.201
Node Portion: 192.168.5.201

9
 NETWORK ADDRESSING
 Subdividing an IP address into a network and
node address is determined by the class
designation of one’s network.
 This figure summarizes the three classes of
networks

10
IP ADDRESS CLASSES

11
CLASS A

A Class A address range allows for up to

224 – 2 = 6,777,214 host IDs (i.e., 24 bits
are used for the host ID portion of the IP
address).

 Network Address Range: Class A

The first bit of the first byte in a Class A
network address must always be off, or 0.
This means a Class A address must be
between 0 and 127. 12
 CLASS B
A Class B address range allows for up to 216 –
2 = 65,534 host IDs (i.e., 16 bits are used for
the host ID portion of the IP address).

 Network Address Range: Class B

In a Class B network the first bit of the first
byte must always be turned on but the second
bit must always be turned off. If you turn the
other 6 bits all off and then all on, you will find
the range for a Class B network between 128
and 191. 13
14
CLASS C

A Class C address range allows for up to 28 –

2 = 256 – 2 = 254 host IDs (i.e., 8 bits are
used for the host ID portion of the IP
address).
 Network Address Range: Class C

For Class C networks the first 2 bits of the

first octet as always turned on, but the third
bit can never be on. the range for a Class C
network between 192 and 223.

15
16
CLASS A LIMITS

17
 Examples:

 1st Class A address range: 1.0.0.0 to

1.255.255.255;
 2nd Class A address range: 2.0.0.0 to
2.255.255.255;
 3rd Class A address range: 3.0.0.0 to
3.255.255.255; …
 127th Class A address range: 127.0.0.0 to
127.255.255.255 (Notice that the 1st octet
stays the same value for any given Class A
address range.
18
CLASS B LIMITS

19
 Examples:

 1st Class B address range: 128.0.0.0 to

128.0.255.255;
 2nd Class B address range: 128.1.0.0 to
128.1.255.255;
 3rd Class B address range: 128.2.0.0 to
128.2.255.255; …
 256th Class B address range: 128.255.0.0 to
128.255.255.255;
 257th Class B address range: 129.0.0.0 to
129.0.255.255; 258th Class B address range:
129.1.0.0 to 129.1.255.255; …
 16,384th Class B address range: 191.255.0.0 to
20
191.255.255.255
CLASS C LIMITS

21
 Examples:
 1st Class C address range: 192.0.0.0 to 192.0.0.255;
2nd Class C address range: 192.0.1.0 to 192.0.1.255;
3rd Class C address range: 192.0.2.0 to 192.0.2.255; …
 256th Class C address range: 192.0.255.0 to
192.0.255.255;
 257th Class C address range: 192.1.0.0 to 192.1.0.255;

 258th Class C address range: 192.1.1.0 to 192.1.1.255;

…
 512th Class C address range: 192.1.255.0 to
192.1.255.255
 513th Class C address range: 192.2.0.0 to 192.2.0.255
…
 Last Class C address range: 223.255.255.0 to
223.255.255.255 22
o Network Address Ranges: Classes D and E
The addresses between 224 to 255 are
reserved for Class D and E networks.
Class D (224–239) is used for multicast
addresses and Class E (240–255) for
scientific purposes.

23
Easily Finding the Class of an IP Address
 It’s important to have memorized the
beginning and ending addresses for the first
octet of classes A to C.
At the very least, it’s necessary to remember
the binary formation of the address:
 first bit is a 0, class A

 first bits are 10, class B

 first bits are 110, class C

24
SUBNET MASK
• The subnet mask tells us which part of an
IP address is the node portion vs. the
network portion
• An IP address without a subnet mask is
meaningless
IP Address: 192.168.5.201
Subnet Mask: 255.255.255.0
----------------------------------------------------
Network ID: 192.168.5.0

25
 SUBNET MASK AND ANDING
 IP: 192.168.5.201
 Subnet: 255.255.255.0

IP: 11000000. 10101000.00000101.11001001

SUBNET: 11111111.11111111.11111111. 00000000
------------------------------------------------------
AND 11000000.10101000.00000101.00000000

26
 Network address: This is the designation
used in routing to send packets to a remote
network—for example, 10.0.0.0, 172.16.0.0,
and 192.168.10.0.

 Broadcast address: The address used by

applications and hosts to send information
to all nodes on a network is called the
broadcast address.

27
28
NETWORK ID
 The all zeros host address is the same as
the network ID
Ex. IP: 192.168.1.0
Subnet: 255.255.255.0
----------------------------------------
Network ID: 192.168.1.0

 Theall ones host address is reserved for

the broadcast address

30
HOST ID
 The first part of the IP address (network ID)
is used to find the network where the packet
needs to be sent.

 Once the packet arrives to its destination

network, it needs to be delivered to a given
host (computer, PDA, videogame,
mobile phone) in that network. The address
of that host is the host ID.

31
CLASSES A, B, AND C, AND THEIR
DEFAULT SUBNET MASKS

32
 RESERVED ADDRESSING
 Address  Function
1. Network address of all 1. Interpreted to mean “this
0s network or segment.”
2. Network address of all 2. Interpreted to mean “all
1s networks.”
3. Network 127.0.0.1 3. Reserved for loopback
tests.
4. Node address of all 0s 4. Interpreted to mean
“network address” or any
host on specified network

33
 Node address of all 1s  Interpreted to mean “all
nodes” on the specified
network
 Used by Cisco routers to
 Entire IP address set
designate the default route.
to all 0s
Could also mean “ (same as

 Broadcast to all nodes on the

 Entire IP address set current network;
to all 1s 255.255.255.255) sometimes
called an “all 1s broadcast” or
limited broadcast any 34
network.”
 LOOPBACK ADDRESSES

Normally, when a TCP/IP application wants

to send information, that information
travels down the protocol layers to IP where
it is encapsulated in an IP datagram.

That datagram then passes down to the

data link layer of the device's physical
network for transmission to the next hop,
on the way to the IP destination.

35
 However, one special range of addresses is
set aside for loopback functionality.
 This is the range 127.0.0.0 to
127.255.255.255. IP datagrams sent by a
host to a 127.x.x.x loopback address are not
passed down to the data link layer for
transmission.
 Instead, they “loop back” to the source device
at the IP level. Data is sent by a device's layer
three IP implementation and then
immediately received by it.
36
 The purpose of the loopback range is
testing of the TCP/IP protocol
implementation on a host. Since the lower
layers are short-circuited, sending to a
loopback address allows the higher layers
(IP and above) to be effectively tested
without the chance of problems at the lower
layers manifesting themselves.
 127.0.0.1 is the address most commonly
used for testing purposes. 37
PRIVATE ADDRESSES
 Private addresses, which are subsets of the
IP address space, that can be used where
there is no need for direct public (meaning
Internet) visibility of the hosts.

 These addresses can then be repeated as

one wishes. For instance, a corporate
network in New York can have its address
in the range 192.168.0.0, and another
network in the same city, just across the38
street, can have the same address range.
 PRIVATE ADDRESSING
 Class Reserved Address Space

 Class A 10.0.0.0 through 10.255.255.255

 Class B 172.16.0.0 through 172.31.255.255

 Class C 192.168.0.0 through 192.168.255.255

39
 PUBLIC ADDRESSES
 Most IP addresses are public addresses.
Public addresses are registered as belonging
to a specific organization.

 InternetService Providers (ISP) and extremely

large organizations in the U.S. obtain blocks
of public addresses from the American
Registry for Internet Numbers (ARIN)

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BROADCAST ADDRESSES
 Layer 2 broadcasts These are sent to all
nodes on a LAN.
 Broadcasts (layer 3) These are sent to all
nodes on the network.
 Unicast These are sent to a single
destination host.
 Multicast These are packets sent from a
single source and transmitted to many
devices on different networks.
41
IPV6
 IPV6, which is the next generation of the
TCP/IP suite. The IP addressing part, in
special, has IP addresses composed of 128
bits.
 This means there are 3.4 × 1038 (that’s 3.4
times 10 followed by 38 zeros). Just for an
idea, this gives 5 × 1028 (five times 10
followed by 28 zeros) addresses available for
each of the approximately 6.5 billion people
living on the earth. 42
SUBNETTING
 Subnetting is the process of borrowing bits
from the HOST bits, in order to divide the
larger network into small subnets.
 Subnetting does NOT give you more hosts,
but actually costs you hosts.
 You lose two host IP Addresses for each
subnet, and perhaps one for the subnet IP
address and one for the subnet broadcast IP
address.
43
 Youlose the last subnet and all of it’s hosts’
IP addresses as the broadcast for that
subnet is the same as the broadcast for the
network.

 In older networks, you would have lost the

first subnet, as the subnet IP address is the
same as the network IP address. IP
SUBNET ZERO.

44
 Subnetting allows for creating multiple
logical networks from a single address block

 Subnets are created using one or more of

the host bits as network bits
done by extending the mask to borrow
some of the bits from the host portion to
create additional network bits

45
SUBNETTING BENEFITS
 Benefitsof subnetting include:
Reduced network traffic
Optimized network performance
Simplified management
Facilitated spanning of large
geographical distances.

46
ANALOGY

 
Dividing the barrel of
apples into small
barrels or baskets
does not give us any
                                                              

more apples…
100 Apples

47
 10 barrels x 10 apples = 100 apples

10 10 10

100 Apples
(10 * 10)
  10
                                                              
10
10

10 10 10

 Itis the same as taking a barrel of 10

100 apples and dividing it into 10
barrels of 10 apples each. 48
 100 – 2 apples = 98 Usable Apples

Before subnetting:
 In any network (or subnet) we

 
can not use all the IP addresses
for host addresses.
98 Apples
(100 – 2)  We lose two addresses for every
                                                              

network or subnet.
 Network Address - One address
is reserved to that of the
network.
 Broadcast Address – One
address is reserved to address
all hosts in that network or
subnet. 49
CALCULATING SUBNETS AND HOSTS
 The number of subnets is calculated using
2n, where n is the number of bits borrowed
21 = 2 subnets
the more bits borrowed, the more subnets
can be defined
 The number of usable hosts per subnet is
calculated using 2h - 2 where h is the
number of host bits left
27 – 2 = 126 useable hosts per subnet
with each bit borrowed, fewer host
50
addresses are available per subnet
 Block size= 256 - (new subnet mask after
borrowing)

51
SUBNET 192.168.1.0/24 --- 2
SUBNETS

52
EXERCICE
 192.168.1.0/24

1. We need 4 subnets.
2. We need 5 subnets

3. We need 8 subnets

53
HOW TO CREATE SUBNETS
 Take bits from the host portion of the IP
address and reserve the to divine the
subnet address.
 To create a subnet, follow these steps:

1. Determine the number of required

network IDs:
• One for each LAN subnet
• One for each wide area network
connection
54
2. Determine the number of required host
IDs per subnet:
• One for each TCP/IP host
• One for each router interface
3. Based on the above requirements, create
the following:
• One subnet mask for your entire
network
• A unique subnet ID for each physical
segment
55
• A range of host IDs for each subnet
SUBNET ADDRESSES

56
 Givena network IP address, there are two
types of problems involving subnetting:

1. Subnetting when given a required number of

networks
2. Subnetting when given a required number of
clients

57
EXERCISE
A company would like to break its Class B
network IP address 172.16.0.0 into 60
different subnets. Find ranges of IP
addresses for each subnet and new mask.

58
EXERCISE 2
A company would like to break its Class
C private IP address 192.168.10.0 into
as many subnets as possible provided
that they can get at least 58 hosts per
subnet. Find ranges of IP addresses for
each subnet and new mask.

62
EXERCICE 3
A company would like to break its Class B
private IP address 172.16.0.0 into as
many subnets as possible provided that
they can get at least 300 clients per
subnet. Find ranges of IP addresses for
each subnet and new mask.

63
 VARIABLE LENGTH SUBNET MASK (VLSM)

67
 Compare and contrast classful and classless
IP addressing.
 Review VLSM and explain the benefits of
classless IP addressing.
 Describe the role of the Classless Inter-
Domain Routing (CIDR) standard in making
efficient use of scarce IPv4 addresses

68
CIDR uses Variable Length Subnet
Masking (VLSM) to help conserve
address space.
-VLSM is simply subnetting a
subnet

69
 Classful routing
only allows for one subnet mask for
all networks
 VLSM & classless routing
This is the process of subnetting a
subnet
-More than one subnet mask can be
used
-More efficient use of IP addresses
as compared to classful IP
addressing 70
71
EXERCICES

72
1. A network manager in Kigali Institute of
Tourism (KIT) has been given a network
address of 192.168.1.0/24. Using Variable
Length Subnet Mask (VLSM), what are the
subnets address needed, their valid hosts
and broadcast addresses based on the
following requirements:
 - KIT_Kigali needs 100 host addresses.

 - KIT_Huye needs 62 host addresses.

 - KIT_Musanze needs 20 host addresses.

 - 3 WAN links which need 2 host addresses

73
each.
 2. A network manager in Kigali Independent
University (KIU) has been given a network
address of 192.168.5.0/24. Using Variable
Length Subnet Mask (VLSM), what are the
subnets address needed, their valid hosts
and broadcast addresses based on the
following requirements:
 - KIU_Kigali needs 58 host addresses.

 - KIU_Huye needs 62 host addresses.

 - KIU_Musanze needs 6 host addresses.

 - 3 WAN links which need 2 host addresses

each. 74
 3. A network manager in PICTS has been
given a network address of 192.168.1.0/24.
Using Variable Length Subnet Mask (VLSM),
what are the subnets address needed, their
valid hosts and broadcast addresses based
on the following requirements:
 - PICTS Kigali needs 50 host addresses.

 - PICTS Huye needs 60 host addresses.

 - PICTS Musanze needs 30 host addresses.

 -PICTS Rusizi needs 30 host addresses.

 - 5 WAN links which need 2 host addresses

each 75
CLASSLESS INTER-DOMAIN ROUTING
(CIDR)
 Usedto allocate an amount of IP address
space to a given entity (company, home,
customer, etc).
 Example: 192.168.10.32/28
 Theslash notation (/) means how many bits
are turned on (1s) and tells you what your
subnet mask is.

76
CIDR VALUES

77
SUBNETTING CLASS C ADDRESSES
 In a Class C address, only 8 bits are available for
defining the hosts. Remember that subnet bits start
at the left and go to the right, without skipping bits.
This means that the only Class C subnet masks can
be the following:
 Binary Decimal CIDR
------------------------------------------------
 10000000 = 128 /25
 11000000 = 192 /26
 11100000 = 224 /27
 11110000 = 240 /28
 11111000 = 248 /29 78
 11111100 = 252 /30
 CLASS C 192 MASK EXAMPLES
Subnet Host Meaning

00 000000 = 0 The network (do this first)

00 000001 = 1 The first valid host
00 111110 = 62 The last valid host
00 111111 = 63 The broadcast address (do this second)

Subnet Host Meaning

01 000000 = 64 The network

01 000001 = 65 The first valid host
01 111110 = 126 The last valid host
01 111111 = 127 The broadcast address 79
CLASS C 192 MASK EXAMPLES
Host Meaning
Subnet

10 000000 = 128 The subnet address

10 000001 = 129 The first valid host

10 111110 = 190 The last valid host

10 111111 = 191 The broadcast address

Host Meaning
Subnet

11 000000 = 192 The subnet address

11 000001 = 193 The first valid host

11 111110 = 254 The last valid host

11 111111 = 255 The broadcast address 80

SUBNETTING CLASS C ADDRESSES –
FAST METHOD

81
82
HOW MANY SUBNETS?
22 = number of subnets.
 X is the number of masked bits, or
the 1s.
 For example, in 11000000, the
number of ones gives us 22 subnets.
In this example there are 4 subnets.

83
HOW MANY HOSTS PER SUBNET?
2y-2 = number of hosts per subnet.
• Y is the number of unmasked bits, or
the 0s.
• For example, in 11000000, the
number of zeros gives us 26-2 hosts.
In this example, there are 62 hosts
per subnet.

84
WHAT ARE THE VALID SUBNETS?
 256-subnet mask = block size, or base
number.
 For example 256-192=64. 64 is the
first subnet. The next subnet would be
the base number plus itself or
64+64=128, (the second subnet).

85
WHAT’S THE BROADCAST ADDRESS
FOR EACH SUBNET?
 Thebroadcast address is all host bits
turned on, which is the number
immediately preceding the next subnet.

86
WHAT ARE THE VALID HOSTS?
 Valid
hosts are the number between the
subnets, omitting all 0s and all 1s.

87
 VLSM was designed to maximize
addressing efficiency
each WAN link requires 2 host
addresses
 Breaks up a subnet into a smaller subnet

88
USING VLSM – STEP 1
 Calculate a subnet from the original 192.168.15.0/24
block to accommodate the largest LAN, i.e. 58 hosts
 Keep 6 host bits to cater for the 58 hosts

Ch 6 - 90
 26 – 2 = 62 useable host addresses
 mask for last octet 11000000
 2 bits are borrowed to create 4 possible subnets

 192.168.15.0/26 (subnet 0)
 192.168.15.64/26 (subnet 1)
 192.168.15.128/26 (subnet 2)
 192.168.15.192/26 (subnet 3)
 Assign subnet 0 (192.168.15.0/26) to this LAN

 3 subnets left unused

 USING VLSM – STEP 2
 Consider the LAN with the next fewer hosts, i.e.
26 hosts
 Require 5 host bits to accommodate 26 hosts

Ch 6 - 91
25 – 2 = 30 useable host addresses
mask for the last octet is 11100000
 Use the next available address of
192.168.15.64/26 to create an address block
for this subnet
 One more bit is borrowed from the above subnet

192.168.15.64/27
 This subnet, 192.168.15.64/27, creates
two more subnets
192.168.15.01000000/27 (subnet 0)
 192.168.15.64/27
192.168.15.01100000/27 (subnet 1)
 192.168.15.96/27
 Assign the 192.168.15.64/27 to this
LAN
1 subnet left unused
92
USING VLSM – STEP 3
 Consider the LAN with the next fewer hosts,
i.e. 10 hosts
 Require 4 host bits to accommodate 10 hosts
24 – 2 = 14 useable host addresses
mask for the last octet is 11110000
 Use the next available address of
192.168.15.96/27 to create an address block
for this subnet
 One more bit is borrowed from the above
subnet
192.168.15.96/28
 This subnet, 192.168.15.96/28, creates
two more subnets
192.168.15.01100000/28 (subnet 0)
 192.168.15.96/28
192.168.15.01110000/28 (subnet 1)
192.168.15.112/28
 Assign both these subnets to the LANs
with the same number of hosts
no subnet left

94
 USING VLSM – STEP 4
Point-to-point WAN links require two host addresses
 Require two host bits to provide two host addresses

 22 – 2 = 2 useable host addresses

Ch 6 - 95
 mask for the last octet is 11111100

 Use the next available address of 192.168.15.128/26

to create an address block for this subnet

 Four more bits are borrowed from the above subnet

 192.168.15.128/30
 This subnet, 192.168.15.128/30, creates 16 more
subnets

Ch 6 - 96
 192.168.15.10000000/30 (subnet 0) 
192.168.15.128/30
 192.168.15.10000100/30 (subnet 1) 
192.168.15.132/30
 192.168.15.10001000/30 (subnet 2) 
192.168.15.136/30
 192.168.15.10001100/30 (subnet 3) 
192.168.15.140/30
USING VLSM – STEP 5
 Calculate the address range and broadcast
address for each subnet

Ch 6 - 97
 Document the host requirements, subnet
addresses, address range, broadcast
addresses and network prefix
USING VLSM – NETWORK DIAGRAM

Ch 6 - 98
SUMMARY

99

99
SUBNETTING EXERCISE:
You’ve been hired to troubleshoot a problem network.
The customer says that they are having problems
with computers being able to connect to each other.
 The network has computers with the following IPs:
 201.54.13.1
 201.54.13.6
 201.54.13.21
 201.54.13.31
 201.54.13.32
 201.54.13.63
 201.54.13.65

All the computers are using the 255.255.255.224

100
mask
Which computers are able to communicate?
EXERCISE
 Select the correct base network ID for
203.121.45.31 /30

IP 203.121. 45 . 0001 1111

Mask 255.255.255. 1111 1100
-------------------------------------------------
AND 203.121. 45 . 0001 1100 = 28

203.121.45.28
101
SUBNETTING EXERCISE 2:
Write out the subnets for the 202.54.13.0
network, subnetted with the
255.255.255.240 mask.

What’s the network address of the 0 subnet?

What’s the first host address in the 0 subnet?
What’s the last host address in the 2 subnet?
What’s the broadcast address for the 3
subnet?

102
VARIABLE-LENGTH SUBNET MASKS
(VLSM)
 VLSM removed the class boundary
restriction of traditional subnet masks.
 With VLSM a network of any class can be
subnetted to almost any size.

103
 SEVEN STEPS TO SUBNETTING
Step 1: Determining Number of Subnets Needed
Step 2: Determining Number of Bits You Can
Borrow
Step 3: Determining Number of Bits You Must
Borrow to Get Needed Number of Subnets
Step 4: Turning On Borrowed Bits and
Determining Decimal Value
Step 5: Determining New Subnet Mask
Step 6: Finding Host/Subnet Variable
Step 7: Determining Range of Addresses 104
SUBNET MASK

105
106
UNICAST

107
UNICAST TRANSMISSION 6.2.3.1
 The process of sending a packet from one host
to another host

Ch 6 - 108
 normal host-to-host communication
 Unicast packets use the host address of the
destination device as the destination address
and can be routed through an internetwork
BROADCAST TRANSMISSION
 The process of sending a packet from one host to all
hosts in the network

Ch 6 - 109
 packet uses a special broadcast address as the
destination address
 Used for locating special services/devices for which
the address is not known or when the host needs to
provide information to all hosts on the network
 mapping upper-layer addresses to lower-layer
addresses
 requesting an address
 exchanging routing information by routing
protocols
Ch 6 - 110
BROADCAST TRANSMISSION (CONT’D)
 Directed broadcast
 is sent to all hosts on a specific network,

Ch 6 - 111
usually a non-local network
 although routers do not forward directed
broadcasts, they may be configured to do
so.

For example, for a host outside of the network

to communicate with the hosts within the
172.16.4.0 /24 network, the destination
address of the packet would be
172.16.4.255.
Limited broadcast
 is used for communication that is limited to

Ch 6 - 112
hosts on the local network
 packets used a destination address of
255.255.255.255 (all ones)
 packets addressed to the limited broadcast
address will only appear on the local
network
As an example, a host within the 172.16.4.0 /24
network would broadcast to all the hosts in its
network using a packet with a destination
address of 255.255.255.255.
MULTICAST TRANSMISSION
 The process of sending a packet from one host to a
selected group of hosts
 designed to conserve bandwidth

Ch 6 - 113
 A special block of addresses from 224.0.0.0 to
239.255.255.255 is used for multicast groups
addressing
 Hosts that wish to receive particular multicast data
are called multicast clients
 video and audio distribution
 routing information exchange by routing protocols
 software distribution
 news feeds
 For the IP address 187.124.100.45, with the
subnet mask 255.255.240.0,
 what is the network ID?

114