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Introduction To Fracture Mechanics

Fracture mechanics is the study of how cracks form and propagate in materials. There are two main modes of fracture: ductile and brittle. Ductile materials experience plastic deformation before fracturing, while brittle materials fracture with little deformation. Crack propagation depends on the material's fracture toughness, which is a measure of its resistance to crack growth. Stress concentrators like defects promote crack initiation and growth. Fatigue failure involves crack initiation, propagation, and final fracture. Beachmarks and striations on fracture surfaces indicate fatigue cracking occurred. Creep is the permanent deformation of materials under sustained mechanical loads, especially at elevated temperatures.

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179 views63 pages

Introduction To Fracture Mechanics

Fracture mechanics is the study of how cracks form and propagate in materials. There are two main modes of fracture: ductile and brittle. Ductile materials experience plastic deformation before fracturing, while brittle materials fracture with little deformation. Crack propagation depends on the material's fracture toughness, which is a measure of its resistance to crack growth. Stress concentrators like defects promote crack initiation and growth. Fatigue failure involves crack initiation, propagation, and final fracture. Beachmarks and striations on fracture surfaces indicate fatigue cracking occurred. Creep is the permanent deformation of materials under sustained mechanical loads, especially at elevated temperatures.

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Introduction to Fracture

Mechanics
Fracture
• Simple fracture is the separation of a body into two
or more pieces in response to an imposed stress
(i.e., constant or slowly changing with time) and at
temperatures that are low relative to the melting
temperature of the material.

• The applied stress may be tensile, compressive,


shear, or torsional
• For engineering materials, two fracture modes are
possible: ductile and brittle.

• Ductile materials typically exhibit substantial plastic


deformation with high energy absorption before
fracture. On the other hand, for brittle materials,
there is normally little or no plastic deformation
with low energy absorption accompanying a brittle
fracture.
• Any fracture process involves two steps:
• crack formation and propagation—in response to an
imposed stress.

• The mode of fracture is highly dependent on the


mechanism of crack propagation. Ductile fracture is
characterized by extensive plastic deformation in
the vicinity of an advancing crack.

• Furthermore, the process proceeds relatively slowly


as the crack length is extended. Such a crack is
often said to be stable.
• It resists any further extension unless there is an
increase in the applied stress.

• In addition, there will ordinarily be evidence of


appreciable gross deformation at the fracture
surfaces (e.g., twisting and tearing).
• On the other hand, for brittle fracture, cracks may
spread extremely rapidly, with very little plastic
deformation.

• Such cracks may be said to be unstable, and crack


propagation, once started, will continue
spontaneously without an increase in magnitude of
the applied stress
Stress Concentration
• flaws are detriment to the fracture strength
because an applied stress may be amplified or
concentrated at the tip of defect, the magnitude of
this amplification depending on crack orientation
and geometry
Safety Factor for Design
Using the yield strength and ultimate tensile strength is sufficient
for most designs, but it’s not a guarantee that catastrophic
failure will not occur, which you’ll be held legally accountable
as the professional engineer responsible for the design.

Current design methods for safety and performance use the


“fracture toughness” of a material.

The basic premise in using fracture toughness, or fracture mechanics


in design is to assume that materials have defects or cracks in
them.

The material property that resists the propagation of these cracks is


the “fracture toughness”.
• Strength is resistance to plastic flow and thus is
related to the stress required to move dislocations
through the solid. The initial strength is called the
yield strength. Strength generally increases with
plastic strain because of work hardening, reaching a
maximum at the tensile strength. The tensile
strength is related to the strength of atomic bonds.

• Toughness is the resistance of a material to the


propagation of a crack. A material with low fracture
toughness, if it contains a crack, may fail before it
yields. A tough material will yield, work harden even
when cracked – the crack makes no significant
difference.
The flaws in materials are also called Stress raisers
due to their ability to increase local stresses.
The Mechanics of Fracture

K c  Y c
Constant
Average stress (i.e.
depending on Crack size
away from crack)
geometry/loading
K c   c

K c  1.1 c

K c  p c

FL
K c  3 2 c
bw

K c  0.7 c
Internal penny shaped crack
Fatigue
Random Cyclic stress
Retired Aircrafts
CRACK INITIATION AND
PROPAGATION
• The process of fatigue failure is characterized by
three distinct steps:
1. Crack initiation, wherein a small crack forms at some
point of high stress concentration

2. crack propagation, during which this crack advances


incrementally with each stress cycle

3. final failure, which occurs very rapidly once the


advancing crack has reached a critical size.
• Cracks associated with fatigue failure almost always
initiate (or nucleate) on the surface of a component
at some point of stress concentration.

• Crack nucleation sites include


• surface scratches, sharp fillets, keyways, threads, dents,
and the like.

• In addition, cyclic loading can produce microscopic


surface discontinuities resulting from dislocation
slip steps that may also act as stress raisers, and
therefore as crack initiation sites
• The region of a fracture surface that formed during the
crack propagation step may be characterized by two
types of markings termed beachmarks and striations.

• Both of these features indicate the position of the


crack tip at some point in time and appear as
concentric ridges that expand away from the crack
initiation site(s), frequently in a circular or semicircular
pattern.

• Beachmarks (sometimes also called“clamshell marks”)


are of macroscopic dimensions (Figure 8.21), and may
be observed with the unaided eye.
• These markings are found for components that
experienced interruptions during the crack propagation
stage—for example, a machine that operated only
during normal work-shift hours. Each beachmark band
represents a period of time over which crack growth
occurred.

• On the other hand, fatigue striations are microscopic in


size and subject to observation with the electron
microscope (either TEM or SEM). Figure 8.22 is an
electron fractograph that shows this feature. Each
striation is thought to represent the advance distance of
a crack front during a single load cycle. Striation width
depends on, and increases with, increasing stress range.
• At this point it should be emphasized that although both
beachmarks and striations are fatigue fracture surface features
having similar appearances, they are nevertheless different, both in
origin and size. There may be literally thousands of striations within
a single beachmark.

• Often the cause of failure may be deduced after examination of the


failure surfaces.

• The presence of beachmarks and/or striations on a fracture surface


confirms that the cause of failure was fatigue. Nevertheless, the
absence of either or both does not exclude fatigue as the cause of
failure
• One final comment regarding fatigue failure
surfaces: Beachmarks and striations will not appear
on that region over which the rapid failure occurs.
Rather, the rapid failure may be either ductile or
brittle; evidence of plastic deformation will be
present for ductile, and absent for brittle, failure.
• the fatigue behavior of engineering materials is
highly sensitive to a number of variables. Some of
these factors include mean stress level, geometrical
design, surface effects, and metallurgical variables,
as well as the environment.
CREEP
• Materials are often placed in service at elevated temperatures and
exposed to static mechanical stresses (e.g., turbine rotors in jet
engines and steam generators that experience centrifugal stresses,
and high-pressure steam lines). Deformation under such
circumstances is termed creep.

• Defined as the time-dependent and permanent deformation of


materials when subjected to a constant load or stress, creep is
normally an undesirable phenomenon and is often the limiting
factor in the lifetime of a part.

• It is observed in all materials types; for metals it becomes important


only for temperatures greater than about ( absolute melting
temperature).
Understanding Creep

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