MCE 407

REFRIGERATION AND AIR-CONDITIONING I

(3 UNITS)

PREPARED BY

BUKOLA O. BOLAJI Ph.D

 
DEPARTMENT OF MECHANICAL ENGINEERING,
UNIVERSITY OF AGRICULTURE, ABEOKUTA
OGUN STATE, NIGERIA

1
REFRIGERATION AND AIR-CONDITIONING I (3 UNITS)
COURSE SYNOPSIS
Fundamental of vapour compression
refrigeration. Analysis of refrigeration cycles.
Heat pumps. Refrigerants and their properties.
Absorption refrigeration. Principles of air-
conditioning with emphasis on thermodynamic
processes involving air-water-vapour mixture.
Production of atmospheric and thermal-
environments for human activity. Principles of
cooling, freezing and storing of perishable
products. 2
1.0 PRINCIPLE & APPLICATION OF REFRIGERATION
Definition: Refrigeration is defined as the branch
of science that deals with the process of reducing
and maintaining the temperature of a space or
material below the temperature of the
surroundings.
•The purpose of refrigerator is to transfer heat
from a cold chamber which is at a temperature
lower than that of its surroundings.
•The natural flow of heat from the surroundings
back to the cold chamber can be resisted by
insulating the chamber from the surroundings.
3
HEAT PUMP
•This energy rejection in the refrigeration
system must be carried out at a temperature
above that of the surroundings.
•This energy can be used for heating purposes
and refrigerating plants designed entirely for
this purpose are called heat pumps.
Definition Heat pump is the, transferring of
energy against the natural temperature gradient
from a low – temperature to a higher one. It is
analogous to pumping of water from a low level
to a higher one against the natural gradient of
gravitational force.
4
REFRIGERATION AND HEAT PUMP
•There is no difference in operation between
a refrigerator and a heat pump.
•With the refrigerator the important quantity
is the energy removed from cold chamber
called the refrigerating effect, and
•With the heat pump it is the energy to be
rejected by the refrigerant for heating
purposes.
•The machine can be used for both purposes
5
NEED FOR THERMAL INSULATION
•Heat will always migrate from a region of high
temperature to a region of lower temperature, there is
always a continuous flow of heat into the refrigerated
region from the warmer surrounding.
•To limit the flow of heat into the refrigerated region to
some practical minimum, it is usually necessary to isolate
the region from its surroundings with a good heat-
insulating material.
THE REFRIGERATION LOAD
The rate at which heat must be removed from the
refrigerated space or material in order to produce and
maintain the desired temperature conditions is called the
refrigeration load, the cooling load, or the heat load. 6
Sources of Cooling Load:
a)The heat transmitted by conduction through the
insulated walls.
b)The heat that must be removed from the warm
air that enters the space through opening and
closing doors.
c)The heat that must be removed from the
refrigerated product to reduce the temperature of
the product to the storage temperature;
d)The heat given off by people working in the space
and by motors, lights and other heat-producing
equipment operating in the space.
7
• ICE REFRIGERATOR

Baffling
Ice Block

Drip Pan
Air
circulation
by natural
convection

Disadvantages of using Ice as a Refrigerant

a)It is not possible to obtain temperature
lower than 0oC. 8
Disadvantages of Ice as a Refrigerant Cont.
b)It is necessary to be replenishing the supply
of ice frequently; this practice is neither
convenient nor economical.
c)More obvious disadvantage of ice is the
problem of disposing of the water resulting
from the melting of the ice.
d)The difficulty experienced in controlling the
rate of refrigeration, which in turn makes it
difficult to maintain the desired low
temperature level within the refrigerated
space. 9
APPLICATIONS OF REFRIGERATION
Refrigeration applications may be
grouped into six general categories:
a)domestic refrigeration
b)commercial refrigeration
c)industrial refrigeration
d)marine & transportation refrigeration
e)comfort air conditioning
f)industrial air conditioning. 10
DOMESTIC REFRIGERATION
Domestic refrigeration is rather limited in scope,
being concerned primarily with household
refrigerators and home freezers. However,
because the number of units in service is quite
large, domestic refrigeration represents a
significant portion of the refrigeration industry.
COMMERCIAL REFRIGERATION
Commercial refrigeration is concerned with the
designing, installation, and maintenance of
refrigerator used by retail stores; restaurants,
hotels, and institutions for the storing and
dispensing of perishable commodities of all types.
11
INDUSTRIAL REFRIGERATION.
•Industrial is often confused with commercial
refrigeration because the division between
these two areas is not clearly defined.
•Industrial refrigeration is larger in size than
that of commercial and has the distinguishing
feature of requiring an attendant on duty;
usually a licensed operating engineer.
•Typical industrial applications are ice plants,
large food-packing plants, breweries,
creameries, and industrial plants
12
MARINE REFRIGERATION
•Marine refrigeration refer to aboard marine
vessels and includes, for example, refrigeration
for fishing boats and for vessels transporting
perishable cargo as well as refrigeration for the
ships stores on vessels of all kinds.
TRANSPORTATION REFRIGERATION
•Transportation refrigeration is concerned with
refrigeration equipment as it is applied to trucks,
both long distance transports and local delivery,
and to refrigerated railway cars.
13
PRESERVATION BY REFRIGERATION
•The preservation of perishables by refrigeration
involves the use of low temperature as a means of
eliminating or retarding the activity of spoilage
agents.
•The storage of perishable at low temperatures
greatly reduces the activity of both enzymes and
micro-organisms and thereby provides a practical
means of preserving perishables in their original
fresh state for varying periods of time.
•Preservation of food products can be grouped into
two general categories:
14
a) PRESERVATION OF LIVING FOOD
• The preservation problem of living food
substances is chiefly one of keeping the
food substance alive while at the same
time retarding natural enzymic activity in
order to slow the rate of maturation or
ripening.
• Vegetables and fruit are as much alive
after harvesting as they are during the
growing period due to the utilization of
the previously stored food substances. 15
Preservation of Living Food Cont.
•This causes the vegetable or fruit to
undergo changes, which will eventually
result in deterioration and complete
decay of the product.
•The primary purpose of placing such
products under refrigeration is to slow
the living processes by retarding enzymic
activity, thereby keeping the product in a
preserved condition for a longer period.
16
b) PRESERVATION OF NON-LIVING FOOD
• Non-living food substances, such as meat,
poultry, and fish, are much more susceptible to
microbial contamination and spoilage than are
living food substances, and they usually require
more stringent preservation methods.
• The problem of preservation of non-living food
substances is one of protecting dead tissue from
all the forces of putrefaction and decay both
enzymic and microbial.
• The enzymes causing the most trouble are those
which catalyze hydrolysis and oxidation and are
associated with the breakdown of animal fats. 17
2.0 VAPOUR COMPRESSION REFRIGERATION
• The vapour compression cycle is the most
widely used refrigeration cycle in practice.
• In this cycle a vapour is compressed, then
condensed to a liquid, and the pressure is
dropped so that fluid can evaporate at a
low pressure
• The Carnot cycle is one whose efficiency
cannot be exceeded when operating
between two given temperatures.
18
CARNOT REFRIGERATION CYCLE
•The Carnot refrigeration cycle performs the
reverse effect of the heat engine, because it
transfers energy from a low level of
temperature to a high level of temperature.
Heat rejection
3 2
CONDENSER

COMPRESSOR
EXPANDER

4 1
EVAPORATOR

Heat addition
19
The processes that constitute the cycle are:
•Process 1 - 2, Isentropic compression, S1 = S2
•Process 2 - 3, Isothermal heat rejection at
T2 = T3
•Process 3 - 4, Isentropic expansion, S3 = S4.
•Process 4 - 1, Isothermal heat addition (heat
absorption from the cold reservoir) at T1 = T4.
•All the processes in the Carnot cycle are
thermodynamically reversible. Processes 1-2
and 3-4 are consequently reversible adiabatic
(isentropic). 20
EFFICIENCY CARNOT CYCLE
The Carnot cycle, consists of reversible
process which make its efficiency higher than
could be achieved in an actual cycle.
Although Carnot cycle is an unattainable
ideal cycle, it necessary to study the cycle
because of the following reasons.
•It serves as a standard of comparison, and
•It provides a convenient guide to the
temperatures that should be maintained to
achieve maximum effectiveness. 21
T (K)

3 2
Tc
NET WORK
Te 1
4 USEFUL
REFRIGERATION
s (kJ/kgK) 22
23
24
QUESTION 2.1
The temperature in an refrigerator evaporator coil is - 6
oC and that in the condenser coil is 22 oC. If the machine

operates on these reversed Carnot cycle, calculate:

•the COPref,
•the refrigerating effect per kilowatt of input work,
•the heat rejected to the condenser.
QUESTION 2.2
A Carnot refrigerator has working temperatures of -
30oC and 35oC. If it operates with R12, calculate:
•the work of isentropic compression,
•the work of isentropic expansion,
•refrigerating effect and heat rejected per kg, and
•COP of the Cycle. 25
26
27
REPLACEMENT OF THE EXPANSION DEVICE WITH
THROTTLE VALVE
•Throttling process occur such that the initial
enthalpy equals the final enthalpy.
•Refrigerating Effect, Qe, is reduced by replacing
the expansion device with a simple throttle valve.
•The Throttling process (3-4) is highly irreversible
that the whole cycle becomes irreversible.
T

Tc 3 2
Te
4 1
USEFUL
s 28
MODIFYING THE CONDITION AT INLET
(i) Wet Compression
•Compression of wet-refrigerant (process 1'-2')
in the Figure below, is called wet compression.
•Wet-compression is not suitable in the
reciprocating compressor due to the following
reasons:
a.Liquid refrigerant may be trapped in the head
of the cylinder and may damage the compressor
valves and the cylinder itself.
b.Liquid-refrigerant droplets may wash away
the lubricating oil from the walls of the cylinder.
29
(ii) Dry Compression
•It desirable to have compression with dry or
superheated vapour refrigerant (process 1-2) as
shown below, this is called dry compression.
•With dry compression:
a)Discharge pressure P2 = condensing pressure Pc
b)Discharge temperature T2 > condensing
temperature Tc or T3.
T
T2 2
3 2'
Tc
Te 4 1
1'
30
s
QUESTION
The temperature in the evaporator of an ammonia
refrigerator is -20oC and the temperature in the
condenser is 32oC. Calculate the refrigerating effect per
unit mass of refrigerant and the COPref for the
following cycles:
a)the ideal reversed Carnot cycle
b)Dry saturated vapour delivered to the condenser
after isentropic compression, the liquid leaves the
condenser and is throttled to the evaporator pressure
c)Dry saturated vapour delivered to the compressor
where it is compressed isentropically, the liquid
leaves the condenser and is throttled to the
evaporator pressure
31
3.0 ABSORPTION REFRIGERATION SYSTEM
Similarity between vapour absorption and
compression systems
•The absorption refrigeration cycle is similar
to the compression cycle in that it employs
volatile refrigerant, which alternatively
vapourises under low pressure in the
evaporator by absorbing latent heat from
the material being cooled and condenses
under high pressure in the condenser by
surrending the latent heat to the condensing
medium. 32
Differences between vapour absorption and
compression systems
•The function of the compressor in vapour
compression system is accomplished in three-step
process in the vapour absorption system by the use of
the absorber, pump and generator or reboiler as
follows:
a)Absorber: Absoption of the refrigerant vapour by
its weak or poor solution in a suitable absorbent,
forming a strong or rich solution.
b)Pump: Pumping of the rich solution raising its
pressure to the condenser pressure.
c)Generator: Distillation of the vapour from the rich
solution leaving the poor solution for recycling.33
 Thermal compression Qa at To
Vapour Absorption Refrigeration System (VARS)
34
REFRIGERANT-ABSORBENT COMBINATIONS
There are different combinations use in different
absorption refrigeration systems
•The systems that use solid absorbents are known
as intermittent absorption Systems
•The systems that use liquid absorbents are known
as continous absorption Systems
•Some of the combinations used in absorption
refrigeration systems are listed below:
•Ammonia as refrigerant and water as absorbent;
•Water as refrigerant and litthium-bromide as
absorbent; 35
• Sulphur dioxide as refrigerant and silical-
gel as absorbent;
• Methylenechloride as refrigerant and
dimethylethane as absorbent.
At present, there are two refrigerant-
absorbent combinations that are in
common use.
• The oldest in terms of usage is Ammonia as
refrigerant and water as absorbent
• A more recent combination is water as
refrigerant and litthium-bromide as
absorbent 36
Criteria for selecting suitable refrigerant-absorbent
combination
a)The absorbent must have a strong affinity for the
refrigerant vapour.
b)The two fluids must be mutually soluble over the desired
range of operating conditions.
c)The two fluids should be safe and stable both individually
and in combination.
d)The absorbent should have a low volatility so that the
refrigerant vapour leaving the generator will contain little or
no absorbent
e)The working pressures in the system should be reasonably
low and preferably near atmospheric pressure
f)The refrigerant should have a reasonably high latent heat
value so that the required refrigerant flow rate is not
excessive. 37
ADVANTAGES OF AMMONIA-WATER SYSTEMS
a)The water absorbent has a very strong affinity
for ammonia vapour
b)The two fluids are mutually soluble over a
wide range of operating conditions.
c)Both fluids are highly stable and are
compactible with most materials found in
refrigeration systems except copper and its
alloys.
d)The ammonia refrigerant has a high latent
heat value.
38
DISADVANTAGES OF AMMONIA-WATER SYSTEMS
a)Ammonia refrigerant is slightly toxic which
limits its use in air-conditioning applications
b)In the presence of moisture, ammonia is
corrosive to non-ferrous metals, such as copper
and brass
c)Major Disadvantage: In the ammonia-water
system, the major disadvantage is that absorbent
(water) is reasonably volatile, so that the
refrigerant (ammonia) vapour leaving the
generator will usually contain appreciable
amount of water vapour. 39
USE OF ANALYZER AND RECTIFIER IN AMMONIA
WATER SYSTEM
•For the reason of volatility of the absorbent (water)
the efficiency of the system can be improved by the
use of analyzer and rectifier.
•ANALYZER: the analyzer is essentially a distillation
column that is attached to the top of the generator.
As the ammonia and water vapour coming off the
generator rise up through the analyzer, they are
cooled, and the water vapour, having the highest
saturation temperature condenses and drains back to
the generator, while the ammonia vapour continues
to rise and leaves at the top of the analyzer.

40
• RECTIFIER: The ammonia vapour from the
analyzer passes to the rectifier, or reflux
condenser, where the remaining water
vapour, and a small amount of ammonia
vapour, condenses and drains back through
the analyzer in the form of a weak reflux
solution.
COEFFICIENT OF PERFORMANCE OF IDEAL
ABSORPTION SYSTEM
• The COP absorption system is defined as the
ratio of the refrigerating effect to the energy
supplied to the generator
41
THE THREE TEMPERATURE LEVELS IN VARS
•An ideal vapour absorption refrigeration
system can be considered to be a combined
system consisting of a Carnot heat engine and a
Carnot refrigerator.
•Thus the COP of an ideal VARS increases as
generator temperature (Tg) and evaporator
temperature (Te) increase and heat rejection
temperature (To) decreases. However, the COP
of actual VARS will be much less than that of an
ideal VARS due to various internal and external
irreversibilities present in actual systems.

42
 4.0 REFRIGERANTS
• Refrigerants are the vital working fluid in a
refrigeration system.
• They absorb heat from where it is not wanted
and dispose it in another area.
• Due to several environmental issues such as
ozone layer depletion and global warming and
their relation to the various refrigerants used,
the selection of suitable refrigerant has
become one of the most important issues in
recent times.
43
PRIMARY AND SECONDARY REFRIGERANTS
PRIMARY REFRIGERANTS:
•Primary refrigerants are those fluids, which are
used directly as working fluids
•When used in compression or absorption systems,
these fluids provide refrigeration by undergoing a
phase change process in the evaporator.
SECONDARY REFRIGERANTS:
•As the name implies, secondary refrigerants are
those liquids, which are used for transporting
thermal energy from one location to other.
Secondary refrigerants are also known under the
name brines or antifreezes.

44
FUNCTION OF SECONDARY REFRIGERANT
•A secondary liquid coolant can be distributed
long distances without problems. If a primary
refrigerant were used, flashing might occur as a
result of excessive pressure drop, creating
operating and control problems.
•The secondary refrigerant also is useful when
the primary refrigerant is toxic. For instance, an
ammonia refrigerant plant can be installed in a
remote location, with a safe secondary coolant
distributed to the load.
45
BRINE
•Apart from water, solutions of water and another
substance are often used as secondary refrigerant.
These solutions are commonly referred to as
“brines”. The origin of this name is that a solution
of sodium chloride and water (the same
constituents as seawater) was one of the first
combinations used in ice making.
Types of Brine
•Sodium or calcium chloride and water
•Ethylene glycol and water
•Propylene glycol and water
•Methanol and water 46
• PHYSICAL PROPERTIES OF BRINES
• Specific Heat: A high specific heat is desirable
because a lower flow rate of brine is required to
remove a given amount of heat. This reduces
pumping power and perhaps equipment size.
• Thermal Conductivity: A high thermal conductivity
increases the heat transfer rates.
• Viscosity: A low viscosity means there will be less
friction and therefore a lower pumping power.
Low viscosity also increases heat transfer rates
• Specific Gravity: A high specific gravity increases
the heat transfer rate. However, a high specific
gravity also increases pumping power. 47
REFRIGERANT SELECTION CRITERIA
Selection of refrigerant for a particular application is
based on the following requirements:
i.Thermodynamic and thermo-physical properties
ii.Environmental and safety properties, and
iii.Economics
Thermodynamic and thermo-physical properties
The requirements are:
a)Suction Pressure: At a given evaporator
temperature, the saturation pressure should be above
atmospheric for prevention of air or moisture ingress
into the system and ease of leak detection. Higher
suction pressure is better as it leads to smaller
compressor displacement 48
b) Discharge pressure: At a given condenser
temperature, the discharge pressure should be
as small as possible to allow light-weight
construction of compressor, condenser etc.
c) Pressure ratio: Should be as small as possible
for high volumetric efficiency and low power
consumption
d) Latent heat of vaporization: Should be as large
as possible so that the required mass flow rate
per unit cooling capacity will be small
e) Isentropic index of compression: Should be as
small as possible so that the temperature rise
during compression will be small 49
f) Liquid specific heat: Should be small so that
degree of sub-cooling will be large leading to
smaller amount of flash gas at evaporator
inlet
g) Vapour specific heat: Should be large so that
the degree of superheating will be small
h) Thermal conductivity: Thermal conductivity
in both liquid as well as vapour phase should
be high for higher heat transfer coefficients
i) Viscosity: Viscosity should be small in both
liquid and vapour phases for smaller frictional
pressure drops. 50
The thermodynamic properties are interrelated
and mainly depend on normal boiling point, critical
temperature, molecular weight and structure.
•The normal boiling point indicates the useful
temperature levels as it is directly related to the
operating pressures.
•A high critical temperature yields higher COP due to
smaller compressor superheat and smaller flash gas
losses.
•On the other hand since the vapour pressure will be
low when critical temperature is high, the
volumetric capacity will be lower for refrigerants
with high critical temperatures.
•This once again shows a need for trade-off between
high COP and high volumetric capacity.
51
The important properties such as latent heat of
vaporization and specific heat depend on the
molecular weight and structure of the molecule.
•Trouton’s rule shows that the latent heat of
vaporization will be high for refrigerants having lower
molecular weight.
•If specific heat of refrigerant vapour is low then the
shape of the vapour dome will be such that the
compression process starting with a saturated point
terminates in the superheated zone (i.e, compression
process will be dry).
•The freezing point of the refrigerant should be lower
than the lowest operating temperature of the cycle to
prevent blockage of refrigerant pipelines.
52
ENVIRONMENTAL AND SAFETY PROPERTIES:
At present the environment friendliness of the
refrigerant is a major factor in deciding the usefulness
of a particular refrigerant. The important environmental
and safety properties are:
a) Ozone Depletion Potential (ODP): According to the
Montreal protocol, the ODP of refrigerants should be
zero, i.e., they should be non-ozone depleting
substances.
•Refrigerants having non-zero ODP have either already
been phased-out (e.g. R 11, R 12) or will be phased-out
in near-future(e.g. R22).
•Since ODP depends mainly on the presence of chlorine
or bromine in the molecules, refrigerants having either
chlorine (i.e., CFCs and HCFCs) or bromine cannot be
used under the new regulations
53
b) Global Warming Potential (GWP): Refrigerants
should have as low a GWP value as possible to
minimize the problem of global warming.
Refrigerants with zero ODP but a high value of
GWP (e.g. R134a) are likely to be regulated in
future.
c) Total Equivalent Warming Index (TEWI): The
factor TEWI considers both direct (due to release
into atmosphere) and indirect (through energy
consumption) contributions of refrigerants to
global warming. Naturally, refrigerants with as a
low a value of TEWI are preferable from global
warming point of view. 54
d) Toxicity: Ideally, refrigerants used in a refrigeration
system should be non-toxic.
•However, all fluids other than air can be called as
toxic as they will cause suffocation when their
concentration is large enough.
•Thus toxicity is a relative term, which becomes
meaningful only when the degree of concentration
and time of exposure required to produce harmful
effects are specified.
•Some fluids are toxic even in small concentrations.
•Some fluids are mildly toxic, i.e., they are dangerous
only when the concentration is large and duration of
exposure is long.
•Some refrigerants such as CFCs and HCFCs are non-
toxic when mixed with air
55
In general the degree of hazard depends on:
•Amount of refrigerant used and total space
•Type of occupancy
•Presence of open flames
•Odour of refrigerant, and
•Maintenance condition
Thus from toxicity point-of-view, the usefulness of
a particular refrigerant depends on the specific
application.
e) Flammability: The refrigerants should
preferably be non-flammable and non-explosive.
For flammable refrigerants special precautions
should be taken to avoid accidents. 56
f) Chemical stability: The refrigerants should be
chemically stable as long as they are inside the
refrigeration system.
g) Compatibility with common materials of construction
(both metals and non-metals)
h) Miscibility with lubricating oils: Oil separators have to
be used if the refrigerant is not miscible with lubricating
oil.
i) Dilelectric strength: This is an important property for
systems using hermetic compressors. For these systems
the refrigerants should have as high a dielectric strength
as possible.
j) Ease of leak detection: In the event of leakage of
refrigerant from the system, it should be easy to detect
the leaks. 57
ECONOMIC PROPERTIES
•The refrigerant used should preferably be
inexpensive and easily available.
LEAK DETECTION
Vacuum Leak Test
Leaks may be detected either by pressurizing the
system and checking for leakage to the outsides or by
drawing a partial vacuum in the system and then
checking for a rise in pressure on a test gauge.
•The vacuum method can indicate if there is a leak,
but not where it is located.
•A vacuum leak test is normally performed after
pressure testing and repair of leaks has been
completed, as a final check. 58
Halide Torch
The halide torch is used for detecting
halocarbon refrigerant leaks. This device
consists of a small propane tank, a burner
with a cooper element, and a sniffer hose. The
hose is used with a probe at the joint where a
leak is suspected to be. Any gas is drawn into
the hose and to the burner. The burner’s
flame will change to a blue-green colour in the
presence of both a halocarbon gas and
cooper; indicating a leak. The halide torch has
a leak sensitivity of about 1 ounce per year. 59
The Electronic Leak Detection
Electronic leak detection is a very sensitive devices
that can detect extremely small leaks as little as 1
ounce per 100 years. The detector has an element
in the probing tip that creates an electric emission
in the presence of a halocarbon gas. The electric
signal is converted in the device either to visual or
an audible signal.
Soap Bubble Test
The soap bubble test is a simple yet often effective
methods of discovering sources of leaks. The joint
or connection is coated with a soap or detergent
solution. Escaping gas forms bubbles at the leak.
The soap bubble method can be used with any
refrigerant. It is more effective when the pressure
in the system is high. 60
DESIGNATION OF REFRIGERANTS
•The Figure below shows the classification of
fluids used as refrigerants in vapour
compression refrigeration systems.

61
REFRIGERANT NUMBERING SYSTEM
•A numbering system has been adopted to
designate various refrigerants. From the number
one can get some useful information about the
type of refrigerant, its chemical composition,
molecular weight etc.
•All the refrigerants are designated by R followed
by a unique number
i)Fully Saturated, Halogenated Compounds
These refrigerants are derivatives of alkanes
(CnH2n+2) such as methane (CH4), ethane (C2H6).
These refrigerants are designated by R XYZ, where:
•X+1 indicates the number of Carbon (C) atoms 62
• Y-1 indicates number of Hydrogen (H) atoms, and
• Z indicates number of Fluorine (F) atoms
• The balance indicates number of Chlorine atoms.
• Only 2 digits indicates that the value of X is zero.
QUESTION
Determine the chemical formula and name of the
following refrigerants: (i) R12, (ii) R22, (iii) R32,
(iv) R134a, (v) R152a
Letter a stands for isomer, e.g. molecules having
same chemical composition but different atomic
arrangement, e.g. R134 and R134a.
63
ii) Inorganic Refrigerants: These are designated
by number 7 followed by the molecular weight
of the refrigerant (rounded-off).
•Ex.: Ammonia: Molecular weight is 17, ∴ the
designation is R717
•Carbon dioxide: Molecular weight is 44, ∴ the
designation is R744
•Water: Molecular weight is 18, ∴ the
designation is R718
iii) Mixtures: Azeotropic mixtures are
designated by 500 series, where as zeotropic
refrigerants (e.g. non-azeotropic mixtures) are
designated by 400 series. 64
Azeotropic Mixtures:
•R500: Mixture of R12 (73.8 %) and R152a (26.2%)
•R502: Mixture of R22 (48.8 %) and R115 (51.2%)
•R503: Mixture of R23 (40.1 %) and R13 (59.9%)
•R507A: Mixture of R125 (50%) and R143a (50%)
Zeotropic Mixtures:
•R404A : Mixture of R125 (44%), R143a (52%) and R134a
(4%)
•R407A : Mixture of R32 (20%), R125 (40%) and R134a
(40%)
•R407B : Mixture of R32 (10%), R125 (70%) and R134a
(20%)
•R410A : Mixture of R32 (50%) and R125 (50%) 65
iv) Hydrocarbons:
•Propane (C3H8) : R290
•n-butane (C4H10) : R600
•Iso-butane (C4H10) : R600a
•Unsaturated Hydrocarbons: R1150 (C2H4)
R1270 (C3H6)

66
CHLOROFLUOROCARBON (CFC) REFRIGERANTS
AND THE ENVIRONMENTAL PROBLEMS
•Prior to the environmental issues of ozone layer
depletion and global warming, the most widely
used refrigerants were CFCs (R11, R12, R22, R502)
and ammonia.
•Of these, R11 was primarily used with centrifugal
compressors in air conditioning applications;
•R12 was used primarily in small capacity
refrigeration and cold storage applications; and
•Other refrigerants were used in large systems such
as large air conditioning plants or cold storages.
67
OZONE LAYER DEPLETION
•The depletion of stratospheric ozone layer was
attributed to chlorine and bromine containing
chemicals such as Halons, CFCs, HCFCs etc.
•Since ozone layer depletion could lead to
catastrophe on a global level, it has been agreed
by the global community to phase out the ozone
depleting substances (ODS).
•As a result except ammonia, all the other
refrigerants used in cold storages had to be
phased-out and a search for suitable
replacements began in earnest.
68
GLOBAL WARMING
•It was also observed that in addition to ozone layer
depletion, most of the conventional synthetic
refrigerants also cause significant global warming.
•In view of the environmental problems caused by the
synthetic refrigerants, opinions differed on
replacements for conventional refrigerants.
The alternate refrigerants can be classified into two
broad groups:
a)Non-ODS, synthetic refrigerants based on Hydro-
Fluoro-Carbons (HFCs) and their blends
b)Natural refrigerants including ammonia, carbon
dioxide, hydrocarbons and their blends
69
HYDRO-FLUOROCARBONS (HFCS) AND THEIR BLENDS
•HFCs and their blends are synthetic refrigerants
and are normally non-toxic and non-flammable.
•It is also possible to use blends of various HFCs to
obtain new refrigerant mixtures with required
properties to suit specific applications.
•However, most of these blends are non-
azeotropic in nature, as a result there could be
significant temperature glides during evaporation
and condensation, and it is also important take
precautions to prevent leakage, as this will change
the composition of the mixture.

70
NATURAL REFRIGERANTS
•It should be noted that the use of natural
refrigerants such as carbon dioxide,
hydrocarbons and ammonia are not new
refrigerants, but this is a revival of the once-
used-and-discarded technologies in a much
better form.
Advantages of Natural Refrigerants
•They are familiar in terms of their strengths and
weaknesses.
•They are completely environment friendly,
unlike the HFC based refrigerants, which do
have considerable global warming potential.
71
 5.0 PRINCIPLES AND APPLICATIONS OF
AIR-CONDITIONING
• Air-conditioning is the process of treating air of
a confined space to control simultaneously its
temperature, humidity, cleanliness, and
distribution to meet the comfort requirements
of the occupants (human beings or animals) or
for the proper performance of some industrial
or scientific process.
• Full air-conditioning implies that the purity,
movement, temperature and relative humidity
of the air be controlled within the limits
imposed by design specifications. 72
COMFORT CONDITIONING
Comfort: Comfort can be defined as the state of mind
that expresses satisfaction with the thermal
environment. It has been established that it is a
subjective terms; what is comfort to a person may
not be for another.
Reasons why Air-conditioning is necessary
a)Heat gains from sunlight and electric lighting, in
particular, may cause unpleasantly high tempe-
ratures in rooms, unless windows are opened.
b)If windows are opened, then wind speeds will
cause excessive draughts.
c)The inner areas of deep buildings will not really
benefit at all from opened windows. 73
• Also, if windows are opened, noise and dirt
enter and are objectionable, becoming worse
on the lower floors of buildings, particularly in
urban and industrial areas.
VENTILATION
• Lack of adequate ventilation means a great
discomfort for the occupants
• Ventilation will provides a controlled and
uniform means of air distribution in place of
the unsatisfactory results obtained with
opened windows.
• Mechanical ventilation without refrigeration is
only a partial solution. 74
INDUSTRIAL AIR-CONDITIONING
The term industrial air-conditioning refers to the
provision of at least a partial measure of comfort for
workers in hostile environment but also to control
air conditions so that they are favourable to
preservation and proper functioning of some objects
and material.
•Sport Heating: During cold weather it may be more
practical to warm a confined space where a worker is
located. Example is the use of an infrared heater;
when its surfaces are heated to a high temperature
by means of burner or by electricity, they radiate
heat to the affected areas. 75
• Spot Cooling: It may be impractical to cool an
entire mill, but conditions may be kept tolerable
for workers by directing a stream of cool air on to
occupied areas.
• Environmental Laboratories: The role of air
conditioning varies from one environmental
laboratory to another. In one a temperature of
-40oC must be maintained to test engines at low
temperatures, and in another a high temperature
and humidity may be maintained to study the
behaviour of animal in tropical climates.
• Photographic Products: The photographic
products industry is a large user of air-conditioning
and refrigeration. Raw photographic material
deteriorates rapidly in high temperatures and
humidity, and other materials used in coating film
require careful control of temperature. 76
• Precision Parts and Clean Room: For manufacturing of
precision metal parts air-conditioning performs three
services keeping the temperatures uniform so that the
metal will not expand and contract, maintaining a
humidity so that rust is prevented, and filtering the air to
minimize dust.
• Computer Room: The air-conditioning system for
computer rooms should control the temperature, humidity,
and cleanness of the air. Some electronic components
operate in a faulty manner if they become too hot, and one
means of preventing such localized high temperature is in
the range of 20 to 23oC. The electronic components in the
computer function favourably at even lower temperatures,
but this temperature is a compromise with the lowest
comfortable temperature for occupants. 77
UNITARY AIR-CONDITIONING
Air-conditioning units are available as unitary of self-
contained (single package) units.
Advantages
•The fact that they are mass-produced and factory-
assembled usually means lower production and installation
costs.
•With proper selection and control they may also provide
relatively low operating costs.
Disadvantages
•There are relatively few options with respect to sizing the
evaporator, condenser, fans, compressor and controls.
•Since each unit must be capable of meeting the peak load
of the space it serves; the installed capacity and connected
electrical load are usually larger than with a central system.
78
EXAMPLES OF UNITARY AIR-CONDITIONING
a)Rooftop Units: Rooftop units are primarily applied in
low-rise buildings with flat roofs, such as stores, shopping
centres, and factories. For better air distribution in the
conditioned space the conditioned air should be ducted
from the rooftop unit to multiple outlets instead of
introducing the total airflow rate at one position.
b)Window Units: They are available in capacities from ½
to 2½ tons and are used to cool small spaces. They are
primarily found in residential applications and small
offices. They have no ducted air distribution. Window
units are designed for minimal installation cost. Such
units can be moved easily from one location to another.
The appearance and noise of these units limits their
application.
79
c) Split-System Air-Conditioning Units: In this
arrangement, the unit is split into two; the blower-
coil units (evaporating units) and the condensing
unit. The blower-coil unit is installed inside the
conditioned space and it consists of fan, evaporating
coil and controls. The condensing unit is installed
outdoor. It consists of a compressor and condenser.
CONDENSING UNIT
• It consists of a compressor and condenser, and it
performs the function of drawing low-pressure
vapour from the evaporator, compressing and
condensing the refrigerant, and supplying it at high
pressure to the expansion device. Condensing units
are installed outdoor to serve an evaporator located
inside the building 80
 6.0 PSYCHROMETRY
Psychrometric deals with the determination of the
thermodynamic properties of moist air and the
utilization of this properties in the analysis of
conditions and processes involving moist air.
•Psychrometry is the study of the properties of
mixtures of air and water vapour. the properties of
moist air are called Psychrometric properties.
•Atmospheric air is a mixture of many gases plus
water vapour and a number of pollutants. The
amount of water vapour and pollutants vary from
place to place. The mixture of air and water vapour
is known as moist air. 81
COMPOSITION OF STANDARD AIR
•The moist air can be thought of as a mixture of
dry air and moisture. For all practical purposes,
the composition of dry air can be considered as
constant.

•Based on the above composition the molecular

weight of dry air is found to be 28.966 and the
gas constant R is 287.035 J/kg.K.
82
MOIST AIR
•As mentioned before the air to be processed in air
conditioning systems is a mixture of dry air and water
vapour. While the composition of dry air is constant,
the amount of water vapour present in the air may
vary from zero to a maximum depending upon the
temperature and pressure of the mixture (dry air +
water vapour).
•For calculation purposes, the molecular weight of
water vapour is taken as 18.015 and its gas constant is
461.52 J/kg.K.
SATURATED AIR
•At a given temperature and pressure the dry air can
only hold a certain maximum amount of moisture.
When the moisture content is maximum, then the air
is known as saturated air.
83
• Basic gas laws for moist air:
According to the Gibbs-Dalton law for a mixture
of perfect gases, the total pressure exerted by
the mixture is equal to the sum of partial
pressures of the constituent gases. According
to this law, for a homogeneous perfect gas
mixture occupying a volume V and at
temperature T, each constituent gas behaves
as though the other gases are not present (i.e.,
there is no interaction between the gases).
Each gas obeys perfect gas equation. Hence,
the partial pressures exerted by each gas, p1,
p2, p3 … and the total pressure pt are given by:
84
• where n1, n2, n3, … are the number of
moles of gases 1, 2, 3, …
Applying this equation to moist air.
p = p t = p a + pv
where p = pt = total barometric pressure
pa = partial pressure of dry air
pv = partial pressure of water vapour
85
IMPORTANT PSYCHROMETRIC PROPERTIES:
•Dry Bulb Temperature (DBT) is the temperature of
the moist air as measured by a standard
thermometer or other temperature measuring
instruments.
•Saturated Vapour Pressure (psat) is the saturated
partial pressure of water vapour at the dry bulb
temperature.
•Relative Humidity (Φ) is defined as the ratio of the
mole fraction of water vapour in moist air to mole
fraction of water vapour in saturated air at the
same temperature and pressure. Using perfect gas
equation we can show that:
•
•
86
Relative humidity is normally expressed as a
percentage. When Φ is 100 percent, the air is
saturated.
Humidity Ratio (W): The humidity ratio (or specific
humidity) W is the mass of water associated with each
kilogram of dry air. Assuming both water vapour and
dry air to be perfect gases, the humidity ratio is given
by:

Substituting the values of gas constants of water

vapour and air Rv and Ra in the above equation; the
humidity ratio is given by:
87
• For a given barometric pressure pt, given the DBT,
we can find the saturated vapour pressure psat
from the thermodynamic property tables on
steam. Using the above equation, we can find the
humidity ratio at saturated conditions, Wsat.
• Dew-Point Temperature: If unsaturated moist air
is cooled at constant pressure, then the
temperature at which the moisture in the air
begins to condense is known as dew-point
temperature (DPT) of air. An approximate
equation for dew-point temperature is given by:

88
• Degree of Saturation μ: The degree of saturation
is the ratio of the humidity ratio W to the
humidity ratio of a saturated mixture Ws at the
same temperature and pressure, i.e.,
µ = W̸Wst,P
• Enthalpy: The enthalpy of moist air is the sum of
the enthalpy of the dry air and the enthalpy of the
water vapour. Enthalpy values are always based
on some reference value. For moist air, the
enthalpy of dry air is given a zero value at 0oC, and
for water vapour the enthalpy of saturated water
is taken as zero at 0oC.
• The enthalpy of moist air is given by:
89
• where cp = specific heat of dry air at constant
pressure, kJ/kg.K
• cpw = specific heat of water vapour, kJ/kg.K
• t = Dry-bulb temperature of air-vapour mixture, oC
• W = Humidity ratio, kg of water vapour/kg of dry
air
• ha = enthalpy of dry air at temperature t, kJ/kg
• hg = enthalpy of water vapour at temp t, kJ/kg
• hfg = latent heat of vaporization at 0oC, kJ/kg
• The unit of h is kJ/kg of dry air. Substituting the
approximate values of cp and hg, we obtain:
90
• Humid specific heat: From the equation for
enthalpy of moist air, the humid specific heat of
moist air can be written as:

• where cpm = humid specific heat, kJ/kg.K

• cp = specific heat of dry air, kJ/kg.K
• cpw = specific heat of water vapour, kJ/kg
• W = humidity ratio, kg of water vapour/kg of dry
air
• Since the second term in the above equation
(w.cpw) is very small compared to the first term,
for all practical purposes, the humid specific heat
of moist air, cpm can be taken as 1.0216 kJ/kg dry
air.K
91
• Specific Volume: The specific volume is
defined as the number of cubic meters of
moist air per kilogram of dry air. From
perfect gas equation since the volumes
occupied by the individual substances
are the same, the specific volume is also
equal to the number of cubic meters of
dry air per kilogram of dry air, i.e.,

92
• Psychrometric chart: A Psychrometric chart graphically
represents the thermodynamic properties of moist air.
• Standard psychrometric charts are bounded by the
dry-bulb temperature line (abscissa) and the vapour
pressure or humidity ratio (ordinate). The Left Hand
Side of the psychrometric chart is bounded by the
saturation line.
• Adiabatic Saturation Temperature: is defined as that
temperature at which water, by evaporating into air,
can bring the air to saturation at the same
temperature adiabatically.
• Adiabatic Saturator: An adiabatic saturator is a device
using which one can measure theoretically the
adiabatic saturation temperature of air.
93
• Schematic of a psychrometric chart for a
given barometric pressure

94
Thermodynamic Wet Bulb Temperature:
After the adiabatic saturator has achieved a
steady-state condition, the temperature indicated
by the thermometer immersed in the water is the
thermodynamic wet-bulb temperature.
PSYCHROMETER:
Any instrument capable of measuring the
psychrometric state of air is called a psychrometer.
Two types of psychrometers are commonly used.
Each comprises of two thermometers with the
bulb of one covered by a moist wick. The two
sensing bulbs are separated and shaded from each
other so that the radiation heat transfer between
them becomes negligible. 95
• The sling psychrometer: is widely used for
measurements involving room air or other applications
where the air velocity inside the room is small. The sling
psychrometer consists of two thermometers mounted
side by side and fitted in a frame with a handle for
whirling the device through air. The required air
circulation (≈ 3 to 5 m/s) over the sensing bulbs is
obtained by whirling the psychrometer (≈ 300 RPM).
Readings are taken when both the thermometers show
steady-state readings.
• Aspirated Psychrometer: In the aspirated psychrometer,
the thermometers remain stationary, and a small fan,
blower or syringe moves the air across the thermometer
bulbs.
• Other types of psychrometric instruments:
(a) Dunmore Electric Hygrometer, (b) DPT meter,
(c) Hygrometer (Using horse’s or human hair)
96
CALCULATION OF PSYCHROMETRIC PROPERTIES
•i) Modified Apjohn equation:

•ii) Modified Ferrel equation:

•iii) Carrier equation:

•where t = dry bulb temperature, oC

•t’ = wet bulb temperature, oC
•p = barometric pressure
•pv = vapour pressure
•pv’ = saturation vapour pressure at wet-bulb temperature 97
QUESTION
Moist air at 1 atm. pressure has a dry bulb
temperature of 32oC and a wet bulb temperature of
26oC. Calculate: (a) the partial pressure of water
vapour, (b) humidity ratio, (c) relative humidity, (d)
dew point temperature, (e) density of dry air in the
mixture, (f) density of water vapour in the mixture
and (g) enthalpy of moist air using perfect gas law
model and psychrometric equations.
•(a) Using modified Apjohn equation and the values
of DBT, WBT and barometric pressure, the vapour
pressure is found to be:
pv = 2.956 kPa (Ans.)
•(b) The humidity ratio W is given by:
W = 0.622 x 2.956/(101.325-2.956)
= 0.0187 kgw/kgda (Ans.) 98
• (c) Relative humidity RH is given by:
RH = (pv/ps) x 100
= (pv/saturation pressure at 32oC) x 100
From steam tables, the saturation pressure of
water at 32oC is 4.7552 kPa, hence,
RH = (2.956/4.7552) x 100 = 62.16% (Ans.)
• (d) Dew point temperature is the saturation
temperature of steam at 2.956 kPa. Hence
using steam tables we find that:
DPT = Tsat(2.956 kPa) = 23.8oC (Ans.)
• (e) Density of dry air and water vapour
Applying perfect gas law to dry air: 99
 Density of dry air ρa =(pa/RaT)=(pt−pv)/RaT
= (101.325−2.956)/(287.035 x 305)x103
= 1.1236 kg/m3 of dry air (Ans.)
•(f) Similarly the density of water vapour in air is
obtained using perfect gas law as:
Density of water vapour ρv = (pv/RvT)
= 2.956 x 103/(461.52 x 305) = 0.021 kg/m3
•(g) Enthalpy of moist air is found from the
equation:
h = 1.005 x t+W(2501+1.88 x t)
= 1.005 x 32 + 0.0187(2501+1.88 X 32)
h = 80.05 kJ/kg of dry air (Ans.) 100