EASC 609

Seismic Data Acquisition &

Processing

Mr AMIN FONTEM
 EASC 609: Syllabus
• Introduction: Historical perspective of the Seismic Method

• Brief review of elastic waves and phenomena such as reflection, refraction, diffraction and attenuation
which occur as these waves propagate through the earth.

• The acquisition equipment used (sources, detectors, recorders, etc.)

• Survey planning & design (modeling)

• Typical acquisition procedures for land and marine surveys;

• Uphole and shallow refraction surveys

• Seismic data processing: the processes used to convert field data to final section

• Velocity analysis, statics, CDP stack, deconvolution and migration

• Practical Sessions

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 Economic Considerations in Seismic
Acquisition
• The three basic requirements for seismic exploration are:
– maximum resolution
– maximum signal-to-noise ratio, and
– minimum cost.
• Unfortunately, these are incompatible objectives.
• Improving the resolution of a seismic survey must cost either
money or signal-to-noise ratio.
• Increasing the signal-to-noise ratio reduces resolution or
increases cost.
• Reducing cost either reduces resolution or increases the
noise relative to the signal.
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 Economic Considerations in Seismic
Acquisition
• A major economic consideration is whether the
survey should be 2-D or 3-D.
• A properly designed 3-D survey will always give
a better image than a 2-D survey.
• Factors which influence the decision towards 3-
D are
– structural complexity,
– extensive faulting,
– need for improved spatial resolution,
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 surface Factors – Seismic Program

• The lines should be straight.

• The lines must form a grid, with line ties at the intersections.
• The lines must tie with any previous lines shot over the prospect.
• At least one line should pass through each well previously drilled
on the prospect.
• At least one line should pass through any potential drilling location.
• If the prospect is close to the limits of a basin, the program should
define those limits, but coverage over unprospective basement
should be limited.
• In general, the rule is to use a rectangular grid, with dip lines and
strike lines.

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 Surface Factors – Seismic Program

• Line locations are preferred that minimize elevation changes along the line.
• If dynamite and shotholes are used, a shallow water table and a constant
shooting formation are preferred.
• If a surface source is used, fairly competent and constant surface material
is preferred.
• In many areas there must be gaps in the surface coverage. Line locations
should be chosen to minimize these gaps and ensure that they do not
occur where the reflection information is critical to the prospect.
• Line locations are chosen that have the easiest access and are easiest to
lay.
• If lines pass through cropland, they should be scheduled so that those lines
can be shot after the harvest, or at least be located to pass through the
least valuable crops.

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 The Seismic Technique & Scope
• Seismic field techniques are designed by making reasoned, coherent, and
practical judgments regarding the variables used in the field.

• "Reasoned" means that the methods used for choosing the variables follow a
logical pattern from a starting point of understanding the exploration
objectives, especially the geological problem that the survey is intended to
solve.

• "Coherent" means that all the variables have been chosen using the same
objectives.

• "Practical" means that operational and processing limitations have been

considered and that the economic constraints of the exploration program have
been met.

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 Seismic Field Variables
• Seismic field variables on land have traditionally been chosen to
reduce noise (ground roll in particular).
• The cost of seismic increases rapidly with increasing bandwidth.
• Parameters are selected on the basis of the bandwidth needed to
achieve the exploration objective.
• This produces an approach to survey design that will be the same
for high resolution detailed surveys as it is for those providing only
structural information.
• This approach also recognises that a key role of acquisition is to
provide data that are properly conditioned for the data processing
steps which will follow, and that will be required to achieve the
objectives.

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 Choosing Field Variables
The steps to be followed are:
• The temporal and spatial frequencies are selected that will solve
the exploration problem.
• These frequencies dictate the time and space sampling
requirements.
• Then a source is chosen which will give adequate output over the
required frequency band.
• Finally, steps are taken to ensure that the signal to noise ratio over
this frequency band is adequate. In addition, there will be special
considerations, such as ensuring that the spread length is long
enough to accurately define the velocity or provide information for
amplitude variations with angle of incidence.

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 Choosing Field Variables
The approach then will be as follows:
• Values are chosen for each variable that will record faithfully the range of
frequencies and wavelengths needed to solve a properly defined geological
problem.
• Previous shooting where available, and new experiments as a last resort, are
used to determine the characteristics of any noise interfering with the desired
signal. This information will be used to vary field techniques (within the limits
set by the signal characteristics) to enhance the signal-to-noise ratio.
• Techniques are selected that seek a solution to the geological problem at the
lowest cost.
• There is not a unique set of parameters for every problem, so compromises
must be made. Large changes in field techniques often make negligible
differences in the recorded data, but large changes in field techniques do
usually make a big difference in cost.

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 Defining the Exploration Problem
• An exploration
problem is usually
posed as a geological
problem.
• The geological
problem must be
redefined in physical
terms that can be
related to field
measurements.
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 Defining the Geophysical Problem

• It means specifying the depth at

target, maximum dip to be resolved,
requirements for resolution in depth,
and horizontal location.

• It means defining the highest

frequency so that the acquisition
technique can be selected to provide
these frequencies.

• It means knowing the absolute

strength of a reflection and the signal
to noise over the required bandwidth.

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 Changing Field Parameters
• Many variables depend mainly on the geological problem to be solved, so they are
unlikely to be changed by field judgments.

• Such variables can be fixed in the planning stages, leaving only a few questions to
be answered through field judgment.

• The sample interval, the group interval, the range of source-receiver offsets, the
recording filters, the geophone frequency, the record length, and the line direction,
spacing, and length, all depend principally on the exploration problem; they will
not be affected by field decisions.

• Source variables, such as charge size and depth or vibrator sweep characteristics
and array details depend largely on near-surface conditions that are usually
independent of the exploration problem.

• These latter quantities are often selected based on historical information

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 Survey Parameters
Sample Intervals
• To logically define a seismic reflection survey, the
defined problem is used to decide the sample
interval, the group interval, and the maximum and
the minimum source-to-receiver distances.
Recording Channels
• The number of recording channels are determined
from the range of offsets and the group interval

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 Survey Parameters
Source Effort
• Source effort is the charge size for a dynamite
survey or the combined effect of the number of
vibrators, vibrator size, and sweep time for
Vibroseis.
Target Reflection Time
• Most instrument settings, filters, sample interval,
record length are determined by the target
reflection time and frequency requirements.
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 Survey Parameters
Source and Receiver Array
• The source and receiver array design is based on the
characteristics of the desired reflection signal. If noise is
a serious problem, its nature must be taken into
account in designing the arrays.

• Line length, direction, and spacing depend solely on the

exploration problem, although the exact location of the
lines may be changed for practical or economic reasons,
within the limits set by the exploration problem.

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Field Experiments/Experimental Shooting
• There are four types of field experiments:
– the Repeat-Record,
– the Long Spread,
– the Passive Noise Spread, and the
– Active Noise Spread —

• It can be useful under the following circumstances:

– when a survey is the first one ever to be shot in an area (or if previous shooting is not
available to the operator)
– when the tentative field variables are grossly different from any previous surveys in
the area
– when previous surveys in the area have produced no (or very poor) reflections at the
target
– when new techniques or new instruments have become available

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 Experimental Shooting
• "Experimental shooting" done at the beginning of a seismic survey

• It may indicate that the planner has not thought of the alternatives, or has no regard
for economic reality

• Experiments demand considerable processing before the results can be properly

evaluated.

• Experiments may require special permits.

• Any experimental seismic recording produces results that can be applied only to the
exact location and time of the experiment.

• An experimental program may add as much as 20 percent to the cost of a survey;

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 Test Methods
• Repeat-Record: A Test of Source Effectiveness

• Long Spread: A Test for Usable Offsets

• Passive Noise Spread: A Test of Ambient Noise

Character

• Active Noise Spread: A Test of Source-Generated

Noise Character

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 Differences between Marine and Land
Surveys
• In marine surveys, because the entire
recording spread and energy source are towed
behind a ship, operations are far faster

• For marine surveys, the source, almost always

an array of air guns or water guns; and the
receivers, always an array of hydrophones, are
in the same uniform fluid medium.

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 Differences between Marine and Land
Surveys
• For marine survey, the thickness of the low-velocity layer (the sea) is
always known precisely from the echo-sounder.

• The most troublesome source-generated noise is ground roll. It is

generally unpredictable, often varying greatly in character and severity
from shot to shot as the near-surface conditions vary along the line.

• It is easier to use short receiver groups at sea.

• For marine survey, more hydrophones per receiver group are used
than would be used for most geophone arrays, because the
correlation distance of the noise is shorter.

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 Summary
• The selection of acquisition parameters follows logical process.

• First, the exploration objectives are defined.

• The group interval is normally twice the CMP interval.

• The requirements of the stack array and symmetrical sampling set the source interval.

• The exploration objectives define the maximum and minimum reflector depths

• The minimum and maximum offsets are approximately determined and the number of channels required may
be simply calculated.

• Temporal frequency requirements are used to select the source type and the source and receiver depths.
• The source and receiver arrays and the source point interval are determined by the ambient noise correlation
distance.

• The whole process depends on acquiring an adequate signal to noise bandwidth with the correct sampling to
meet the exploration objective and the requirements of the data processing steps that follow.

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 EASC 609
Seismic Data Acquisition &
Processing

MR AMIN FONTEM
 Objective of Seismic Processing

• The main goal of seismic processing is to

obtain the best image of the subsurface.

• To achieve this goal the seismic processing

should improve the signal-to-noise ratio and
locate the reflections in their real spatial
position.

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 Objective of Seismic Processing

• We refer to noise as any energy that is recorded and does not

come from the primary reflections.

• There are two types of noise:

– Coherent noise: Seismic energy that is consistent from trace to trace.

The most common sources of coherent noise are interbed multiples,
ground roll, power lines and surface vibrations.

– Random or ambient noise: Energy that lacks any relationship between

traces. Usually, the random noise is caused by instrumental noise,
winds and geophone coupling problems.

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 Objective of Seismic Processing
• The second task of seismic
processing is to locate the
reflections in their real spatial
position; this task is known as
imaging.
• The method used to archive this
task depends on the acquisition
geometry.
• Figure 1: Each receiver station
records the wavefront produced by
the seismic source; after the
wavefront is recorded (during a fix
time interval known as record
length), the receivers are move for
the next seismic shot location

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 Objective of Seismic Processing
• After the data is loaded, and
some initial processes are
applied, it is sorted from the
acquisition domain (shot
gather domain) to the
common-mid-point domain
(CMP).

• In the CMP domain, the data

is sorted in groups (gathers) of
traces that have the same
source-receiver mid point.

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 Objective of Seismic Processing
• After the stacking, the seismic section usually does not represent accurately
the location of the reflector.

• This is because of the normal incidence travel path is only valid for
horizontal seismic interfaces.

• The process used to correct this effect is called seismic migration.

• Seismic migration improves the seismic image because the locations of

subsurface structures (especially faults) are correct in migrated seismic data.

• Migration collapses diffractions from discontinuities and corrects bow ties to

form synclines.

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 Seismic Processing Flow
• The most important decision to be taken during a
seismic processing project is the processing flow.

• The processing flow should be adapted to the

seismic data characteristics.

• The ability of the processor to find the best

combination of process is critical for the quality of
the final section.
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 Basic Seismic Processing Sequence

• Although seismic processing flows must be adapted according to

the characteristics of the data, they typically include three major
steps:

1. Preprocessing and Deconvolution:

The objectives of these steps are to:

– Sort the data in the channel domain (demultiplexing)

– Delete defective traces (trace editing)
– Correct the amplitude of wavefront divergence (gain recovery), datum
correction (elevation statics) and remove the seismic source effects
(deconvolution).

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 Basic Seismic Processing Sequence

2. Stacking and Velocity Analysis:

During this step the data is:
– Sorted to CMP domain (CMP sorting)
– Moveout velocity is estimated (velocity analysis)
– The moveout is removed (NMO correction) and
the reverberations are suppressed (multiple
attenuation).

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 Basic Seismic Processing Sequence

3. Migration:
• The goal of this step is to locate the
reflections in the correct spatial location.
• This process is called seismic migration; this
is a very important step because the
locations of subsurface structures depend on
correctly selecting the parameters.

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33
 Data Processing

• Reflected seismic response is a mixture of our output pulse,

the effect of the Earth upon that pulse, and background
noise, all convolved together.

• We must remove the output pulse and the noise to leave just
the 'Earth model'.

• This is the role of seismic data processing, which requires

accuracy, reliability, speed and computing power
(mathematical algorithms)
Data Acquisition & Processing

Ideal seismic response would be a single sharp

reflection for each sub-surface rock layer boundary.
Actual seismic response is less than ideal because
our output pulse is not perfectly sharp and changes
its shape while passing through the Earth.
 Deconvolution
• One of the most important tasks in seismic processing is to
improve the vertical resolution—the higher the resolution,
the thinner the layer that the seismic is able to define.

• The most common way to improve the temporal resolution

is to minimize the effect of the wavelet on the final stack;
this process is known as seismic deconvolution.

• Deconvolution is also used to remove coherent noise as

energy coming from multiple arrivals.

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Deconvolution

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 Deconvolution
• Deconvolution 'deconvolves' our
output pulse from the seismic
response and converts it into a
cleaner, sharper, less confusing
pulse.
• Seismic traces from the same
reflecting point are gathered
together (CRP gather) and summed,
or 'stacked'.
• The more of these seismic traces
we can stack together into one
output trace, the clearer the
seismic image.
 Deconvolution rt  st * wt1

• Deconvolution is not a perfect inversion process; it is limited by

the signal-to-noise ratio and the bandwidth of the seismic data.

• Deconvolution improve the temporal resolution by compressing

the seismic wavelet.

• Deconvolution is usually applied in the shot-receiver domain

before common depth point (CDP) sorting.

• It can be applied in post-stack data in order to improve the

temporal resolution.

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The Common Midpoint Stack

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 Common Mid Point (CMP)

• We see that trace 2 from record A, trace 4 from record B,

and trace 6 from record C sample the same subsurface
point.

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 CMP Gather
• This surface point is the common mid-point, because it is shared
by several or many ray-paths, each distinguished by its source-
to-receiver offset.

• Each raypath corresponds to a seismic trace, but the several or

many traces are derived from different source points, and so
appear on different source records.

• The operation of sorting all the traces having a common

midpoint is called gathering, and the suite of traces thus
assembled is called a common-midpoint gather, or simply a cmp
gather.
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 CMP Stacking
• The gathering is because the raypaths impinge on the same
portion of the reflector, the traces record substantially the
same signal;

• Because the raypaths are otherwise different in space and in

time, the traces record different ambient noise.

• Addition of all the traces having a common midpoint — after

appropriate corrections — enhances the signal-to-noise ratio.

• The addition of these traces is called cmp stacking.

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 CMP Stacking
• Before we can stack the traces of the gather, we
must make the appropriate corrections
• These corrections ensure that the signal is
substantially the same on all the traces.
• This means that:
– the traces must sample substantially the same portion of
the subsurface;
– the signal must have the same time on all the traces; and
– the signal must have the same shape on all the traces.

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 CMP – Dipping Reflector
• When the reflector has dip, the traces sharing a common mid-point do not share a
common depth point
• The Solution to this problem is dip moveout optimization, or DMO

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 Prestack Processes
• A reflection signal changes from trace to trace along a common-midpoint
gather for several reasons.

• The obvious differences are those of reflection time; more subtle differences
occur in the shape or character of the reflection.

• Time differences may be static, affecting the entire trace by the same
amount,

• or dynamic, varying with reflection time.

• In general, static time differences arise from raypath irregularities in the near-
surface; dynamic time differences arise from differences in the raypath length

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 Benefits of Stacking
• The major benefit of stacking is the improvement in the signal-to-
noise ratio.

• Stacking also allows us to display the suite of stacked traces in a

form that resembles a zero-offset, normal-incidence section

• The stack is also an excellent attenuator of certain long-path

multiples.

• The stack also has economic benefits; when we stack N-fold data,
we reduce by a factor of N the number of traces that need
subsequent processing

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48
 Datum Corrections
• The first of the time corrections
occurs early in the processing; this
is the "removal" of the near-surface
effected by the datum corrections.

• To make these corrections, we first

establish a seismic datum, generally
below the inhomogeneous near-
surface.

• This datum now serves as our

surface of zero time, and all
subsequent timing is done from this
origin.

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Seismic Data Acquisition &
Processing

MR AMIN FONTEM
 Migration
• Seismic migration is a powerful tool used in seismic processing
to get an accurate picture of underground layers and structures.

• It involves geometric repositioning of reflection events recorded

on the surface to their actual reflection points rather than with
respect to observation points.

• The migration moves dip events to their true positions, and it

collapses the diffractions delineating subsurface features, such
as, fault planes, high-dip structures and salt bodies that cannot
be observed in the conventional stack section

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 Migration
• Migration methods can be categorized into three types:

– Kirchhoff-type: This is the most popular method in recent years. It

works trace by trace, so it does not need any data re-organizations as
required by other methods.
– This characteristic permits its use for many kinds of acquisition
geometries.
– It can be used in target-oriented imaging without the requirement to
migrate all the area.

• Kirchhoff migration is not the best for imaging complex

structures or areas with strong velocities variations

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A process called 'migration' moves reflected energy to its true
sub-surface position of origin
 Migration - Method 2
• Finite-difference: In finite-difference migration, the
wavefield is continued downward (or both
downward and upward) by applying a finite-
difference approximation to the space-time wave
equation

• This method is much more accurate than Kirchhoff-

type migration methods, but it is time consuming
and is computationally prohibitive for imaging large
3-D structures
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 Migration - Method 3
• Frequency-wavenumber or Fourier transform:
Frequency-wavenumber migration is sometimes
a preferred method because of its higher
efficiency over finite-difference migration and
better accuracy compared to Kirchhoff-type
migration methods.

• However, this method does not accurately

account for strong lateral velocity variations
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Migration Mechanism

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 Migration Types

• There are two basic types of migration processes used today in the oil
industry:
– time migration
– depth migration.

• In time migration processes, the input and output are time-domain data

• Depth migration processes require input data in the time domain. These
data are then migrated and simultaneously converted to the depth domain

• The output of depth migration is a seismic section in the depth domain

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 Migration Methods

• With the application of computer technology to seismic

data, we no longer use mechanical methods to migrate data.
• Computers are used to migrate all seismic data using higher-
order mathematics.
• One of the first new methods introduced was the hyperbolic
integration method of migration.
• This scheme is also called:
– diffraction collapse,
– diffraction summation,
– diffraction stack or
– maximum convexity migration.

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Migration Modes (2D & 3D Data)

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Effect Of Seismic Migration On Geological Features

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Pre Migrated

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Post Migrated

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 2D & 3D Migration
• As with 2-D migration, 3-D migration can be classified into
one of two types; time migration and depth migration.
• The differences between 3-D time migration and 3-D
depth migration resemble those found between their
two-dimensional counterparts.
• Three-dimensional depth migration can handle velocity
variations in both the vertical and horizontal directions,
whereas three-dimensional time migration methods can
handle moderate (at most) velocity changes, and only in
the vertical direction.

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 Assignment

• Are Field Experiments or Experimental

Shooting Necessary?

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