FOUNDATIONS OF

PETROPHYSICS
MR AMIN FONTEM
What is Petrophysics?
Petrophysics is defined as the study of the physical and chemical properties of rocks and their
contained fluids.
Petrophysics uses rock properties and relationships among these rock properties to identify and
evaluate hydrocarbon reservoirs, source rocks, seals and aquifers (Thomas, 1994 SPE Reprint No.
39, p.3)
Why Petrophysics
Need to know:
How much oil is present
How much oil is recoverable

Rate at which oil may be produced

Number of wells required to optimize production

Enhanced oil recovery techniques
 Sedimentary Rocks

Sedimentary Rock Types

Claystone
Sand Shale
Silt Mudstone Siliciclastic or Detrital
Clay Sandstone “Chemical” Rock
Clay minerals Siltstone
Limestone or Carbonates
Anhydrite
Halite

Shale is a mixture of silt-sized grains, clay-sized particles and clay minerals. Clay minerals
are the single most important component of shale (>35% by volume)
 Textural (Size) Classification
Wentworth Grain Size Classification

Conglomerate: Grains>2mm

Conventional
Sandstone: Grains 0.0625 to 2mm

Reservoirs
◦ Very Coarse Sand 1 to 2mm
◦ Coarse Sand 0.50 to 1mm
◦ Medium Sand 0.25 to 0.50mm
◦ Fine Sand 0.125 to 0.25mm
◦ Very fine sand 0.0625 to 0.125mm
Siltstone: Grains 0.0039 to 0.0625mm
Coarse Silt 0.031 to 0.0625mm
Shale

Medium Silt 0.0156 to 0.031mm

Fine Silt 0.0078 to 0.0156mm
Very Fine Silt 0.0039 to 0.0078mm
Unconventional Reservoirs/
Claystone: Grains <0.0039mm (~4µm) Tight Gas Shales
Rock
Formation
Sandstone

Quartz (SiO2)
 Kaolinite (Al2O32SiO22H2O)
Rock Formation - Shale Illite (KAl2(OH)2AlSi(O,OH)10
Smectite (NaMgCa)Al2O35SiO2 nH2O

Shale cuttings

Chlorite (MgFe)5Al(AiSiO3)O10 (OH)5

Shale

Sandstone
Shale

Fissility Examples of Smectites: Montmorillonite and Bentonite

Rock Formation Carbonate

Limestone
Words for non-Geologists
Diagenesis- changes that take place when sediments are converted to a rock
Detrital Rocks – rocks formed from weathered and eroded pre-existing rocks
Authigenic (neoformed)- Rocks or minerals formed in the location found
Shale – is a fine grained, detrital sedimentary rock made up of silt-sized grains, clay-sized
particles and clay minerals
Claystone – rock made up of clay minerals
Sand – Unconsolidated quartz grains
Sandstone – a rock made up predominantly of sand grains
Limestone – a sedimentary rock composed mainly of calcium carbonates
Silt – find grained quartz or silicate minerals of size between 0.0039 and 0.0625mm
Siltstone – rock made up of silt-sized particles
Mudstones – fine grained sedimentary rock made up of silt-sized grains, clay-sized particles, clay
minerals and lack fissility
Siliciclastic rocks are clastic rocks made up of quartz and/or silicate minerals
 Rock Properties

Porosity

Permeability

Capillary pressure and Fluid Saturation

Relative Permeability
Fluid Properties
Surface and Interfacial Tension

Wettability

Viscosity
ROCK PROPERTIES -
Porosity
 Reservoir Rocks
Commercial hydrocarbon reservoirs must exhibit two characteristics
◦ Capacity for storage: Porosity
◦ Transmissivity to fluids: Permeability
Storage requires void spaces & transmissivity requires continuity of
void spaces
 Porosity
Defined as the ratio of the pore volume to the bulk volume of a material
In hydrocarbon reservoirs, the pore volume is available for the accumulation
of oil, gas and water
Porosity is expressed as percentage of bulk volume
Porosity = Ø = Vp x 100%
Vb

Vp - Pore Volume
Ø = Vb – Vg x 100%
Vb - Bulk Volume
Vb
Vg - Grain Volume

Ø = Vp x 100%
Vg + V p
 Porosity
Porosity may range from 50% to 1.5%
Effect of
• Recent sands (loosely packed) 35-45% grain size
•Sandstones (more consolidated) 20-35% on porosity
– no effect
•Tight/well cemented sandstones 15-20%
•Limestones (Middle East) 05-20%
•Dolomites (Middle East) 10-30% Effect of
•Chalk North Sea 05-40% grain
packing on
porosity - -ve
effect
Note: These are only examples
 Types of Porosities
Total Porosity
-The ratio of the volume of all the pores to the bulk volume of a material, regardless of
whether or not all of the pores are interconnected

Isolated Porosity
-The ratio of the volume of pores that are not connected to the bulk volume of the rock
Effective Porosity or interconnected porosity
-The ratio of the interconnected pore volume to the bulk volume of the rock
Primary and Secondary Porosity
Primary Porosity
- intergranular porosity (Sandstone) which exists as space between
framework or matrix grains during sedimentation

Secondary Porosity
- processes subsequent to sedimentation such as re- crystallization,
solution, weathering, fracturing that create additional porosity
- sandstone porosity include dissolution porosity, fracture porosity and
microporosity
Examples of Porosity

Microporosity

Intraparticle
porosity

Intergranular porosity

Dissolution porosity
 Porosity Measurement

Boyle’s Law Porosimeter

- isothermal expansion using Boyle’s Law
Wet & Dry weight method
- weighing cores filled with liquid of known density
Summation of fluids
- independent determination of gas, oil and water in fresh core samples
Total porosity method
- Dry weight and determine bulk volume, then reduce sample to grain size
Porosity Measurement Under Stress

Reservoir rock at in-situ depth is under considerable stress

◦ Vertical loading from weight of solid material above (1psi/ft)
◦ Lateral stress from geological deformation and lateral confinement
◦ Hydrostatic forces by fluid within pores

Porosity should be measured under a confining pressure approximately equivalent to in-situ

stresses

In laboratory, in-situ stresses are simulated by using hydrostatic loading cell

Boyle’s Law Porosimeter

Vp - Pore Volume
PV = constant
Vb - Bulk Volume
P1V1 = P2V2
Vg - Grain Volume
1kp x 4m = 1.33kp x 3m
3 3
 MEASUREMENT OF POROSITY , BOYLES LAW METHOD

 This method is a gas transfer technique that involves the compression of gas
into the pores or the expansion of gas from the pores of a clean dry sample
(Monicard-1980). Boyle’s law states that the volume of a gas varies
inversely with pressure under isothermal conditions. Figure 4-2 shows a
sketch of Boyle’s Law porosimeter.

Boyle's Law Porosimeter

• Suppose the rock sample is placed in the sample chamber at zero gauge pressure and the
reference chamber is filled with gas at pressure P1, then the valve between the two chambers is
open and the system is brought to equilibrium. The number of moles in both situations
remains constant:

• Using Boyle’s Law:

• Where VS is the volume of solids in the rock, VRef is the volume of the reference chamber,
VSam is the volume of the sample chamber, P1 is the pressure before opening the valve, and
P2 is the pressure at equilibrium after opening the valve. Therefore, the technique as described
here gives the solid volume of the sample (note that the gas fills only the effective volume of
the rock). The bulk volume can be measured directly using a caliper
 Water Saturation Method
• A dry rock sample is weigh and then vacuum-saturated with water. The water-
saturated sample is weigh and the difference between both weights is the weight of
water within the pores. Knowing the density of the water, the volume of water
occupying the pore space of the rock is calculated. This technique also gives the
effective pore space of the rock
ROCK PROPERTIES -
Permeability
 What is permeability?
What is permeability?
It is a measure of the ability of a porous material to transmit fluid under a potential
gradient. It has direct analogies with thermal conductivity, electrical conductivity and
diffusivity.

It is defined by a transport equation

Q dΦ
=U = -const
A dL
i.e. the rate of transfer is proportional to the
potential gradient
For transport of fluids const = K/Φ = fluid mobility

The unit of measurement for permeability (K) is the darcy

 Darcy
One darcy is defined as the permeability that will permit a fluid of one centipoise viscosity to flow at a rate
of one cubic centimeter per second through a cross-sectional area of one square centimeter when the
pressure gradient is one atmosphere per centimeter
Millidarcy (mD), which is one thousandth (1/1000) of a darcy (D), is used in core analysis and field
calculations.
Formation permeabilities vary from a fraction to more than 10,000 mD
The general Darcy’s equation in differential form for single phase fluid flow through porous media is:

Q = - K Φ
A μ dL

If flow is horizontal, potential gradient equals pressure gradient (dΦ = dP), then above
equation becomes …………………
 Permeability

Q = - K dP where (in darcy unit system)

A μ dL

Q = Flow rate, cm3/sec

K = Permeability, darcy *

A = Cross sectional area, cm2 Q/A *

μ = Fluid viscosity, centipoise or cp
*
P = Pressure, atmosphere
*
L = Length, cm
dP/dL
Plot of Darcy velocity versus pressure drop per unit length in
Darcy’s equation assumes a single-phase, a linear-laminar flow regime
laminar flow and without rock-fluid interaction
 Geological Controls on Permeability

Variation in sandstone permeability

is due to:
1. Grain size
2. Bedding
3. Grain shape
Permeability variation in carbonates due
4. Grain Orientation to:
5. Grain packing 1. Degree of mineral alteration
6. Grain size distribution (dolomitization)
7. Cementation 2. Porosity development
8. Clay content 3. Fractures (major contributor)
 Permeability Anisotropy
Permeability is directional (anisotropic)

Factors controlling Anisotropy

1. Environment of deposition
2. Diagenesis (dissolution)
3. Fracturing
 Permeability Anisotropy
Importance of fracturing
- Fractures provide essential porosity and permeability

- Fractures provide essential reservoir permeability but contribute little to porosity

- Fractures add permeability to an already productive reservoir

- Fractures provide no additional porosity or permeability but create a significant

reservoir anisotropy (compartmentalized uneconomic units)
 Permeability Measurement
Measured on core plugs (normal horizontal and vertical permeability) or
drilled sidewalls (if undamaged) and full diameter cores (multidirectional
horizontal axis with vertical axis)

Measured during DST used as input for flow calculation

Hassler type permeameter for permeability measurements in the lab

under steady-state flow conditions

Core permeability provides more detailed information of permeability

variation at small scale essential for detailed reservoir description and
characterisation
 Hassler-Type Measurement of Permeability

The apparatus includes a pressurized gas cylinder, a Hassler core holder, and a flowmeter. The
apparatus is designed to ensure that no restrictions exist in flow lines that could cause a pressure
drop between the core face and the pressure gauges. To determine air permeability, a clean, dried
core sample is first placed in the core holder and pressure is applied to the rubber sleeve to seal it
to the core. Air is then injected at a constant pressure until gas production rate and pressure
stabilize. The pressure differential between the two ends of the core and flow rate are recorded for
permeability calculation using the integrated form of Darcy's law for a compressible fluid.
 Hassler-Type Measurement of Permeability

Kg = 2000PaμQaL
(P21-P22)A Schematic diagram of Hassler Cell for permeability
measurement

Where:
Compressor
Qa = flow rate at atmospheric pressure in cm3/s Rubber tubing
Pressure
transducer

Kg = permeability to gas in millidarcy

Digital
voltmeter
A = cross sectional area in cm 2
Core sample
L = length of flow in cm,
To flowmeters
μ = fluid viscosity in centipoise Vacuum pump

P1 = upstream pressure in atmospheres High pressure cylinder

P2 = outlet pressure in atmospheres

Pa = atmospheric pressure
 Slippage Phenomenon During Gas Permeability Measurements

Gas permeability dependent on the

mean pressure of the gas existing at
the time of measurement
At low mean pressure, gas perm
exceeds liquid perm
At high mean gas pressure, gas
permeability approaches liquid
permeability
Slippage effect is a laboratory
phenomenon due to low flowing
gas pressure, but negligible for gas
flow at reservoir conditions
 The Klinkenberg Effect

Klinkenberg (1941) discovered that permeability measurements made with air as the flowing fluid showed
different results from permeability measurements made with a liquid as the flowing fluid. The permeability of a
core sample measured by flowing air is always greater than the permeability obtained when a liquid is the
flowing fluid. Klinkenberg postulated, on the basis of his laboratory experiments, that liquids had a zero velocity
at the sand grain surface, while gases exhibited some finite velocity at the sand grain surface. In other words, the
gases exhibited slippage at the sand grain surface. This slippage resulted in a higher flow rate for the gas at a
given pressure differential. Klinkenberg also found that for a given porous medium as the mean pressure
increased the calculated permeability decreased.
Mean pressure is defined as upstream flowing plus downstream flowing pressure divided by two, [pm = (p1 +
p2)/2]. If a plot of measured permeability versus 1/pm were extrapolated to the point where 1/pm = 0, in other
words, where pm = infinity, this permeability would be approximately equal to the liquid permeability. A graph
of this nature is shown in Figure. The absolute permeability is determined by extrapolation as shown
 Klinkenberg Equation

Kg = K∞ (1 + b/Pm)

Used for gas slippage correction

Plot of Kg versus the inverse of mean flow

pressure (1/Pm) yields a straight line with a
slope of K∞b

Slope is a function of gas type (molecular

weight & size)
 Forchheimer Inertial Resistance
(Non-Darcy Flow)

As velocity increases in porous media, dP/dL is no longer linear with velocity

The deviation is known as non-Darcy flow (Forchheimer flow region)

Inertial Effect
Acceleration in
Pore Throat

Deceleration
in Pore Body
 Inertial Effect

Excess Pressure
Loss Due to Inertia

•
• Lost Flow
Rate due
to Inertia
•
V = Q/A

• Q/A = K/μ . ∆P/L

ow
rc ar
Fl
Da min
y

•
La

∆P/L = Q/A . μ/K

• Forchheimer
• -dP/dL = V μ/K + βρV2

After Keelan and Marschall, 1989

∆P/L
 Forchheimer Inertia Resistance
(Non-Darcy Flow)
Deviation from Darcy Flow is caused by inertial effects
Inertial effects are caused by fluid acceleration at the pore throats and deceleration at pore
bodies
Inertial effects become increasingly prominent as pressure differential increases, results in excess
pressure loss and loss of flow rate
Flow can be described by Forchheimer equation:
-dP = μV + βρV2
dL K

β non-Darcy coefficient characterising excess pressure loss

ρ density of fluid
V velocity of flowing fluid
 Averaging Absolute Permeabilities

The most difficult reservoir properties to determine usually are the level and distribution of the absolute
permeability throughout the reservoir. They are more variable than porosity and more difficult to measure. Yet
an adequate knowledge of permeability distribution is critical to the prediction of reservoir depletion by any
recovery process. It is rare to encounter a homogeneous reservoir in actual practice. In many cases, the reservoir
contains distinct layers, blocks, or concentric rings of varying permeabilities. Also, because smaller-scale
heterogeneities always exist, core permeabilities must be averaged to represent the flow characteristics of the
entire reservoir or individual reservoir layers (units). The proper way of averaging the permeability data
depends on how permeabilities were distributed as the rock was deposited. There are three simple permeability-
averaging techniques that are commonly used to determine an appropriate average permeability to represent an
equivalent homogeneous system. These are:

• Weighted-average permeability
• Harmonic-average permeability
• Geometric-average permeability
 Weighted-Average Permeability
This averaging method is used to determine the average permeability of layered-parallel beds with different
permeabilities. Consider the case where the flow system is comprised of three parallel layers that are separated from
one another by thin impermeable barriers, i.e., no cross flow. All the layers have the same width w with a cross-
sectional area of A. The flow from each layer can be calculated by applying Darcy’s equation in a linear form as,
 Averaging Permeability (Stratified sands)
Flow parallel to bedding
Thickness weighted arithmetic average of layer perm gives upscale coarse
perm in direction of flow

Q =Σ Q i
Q in i=l

K1 h1
K2 h2

Arithmetic Average
n
Σ Kihi
Kavg i=l
n
= Σ hi
i=l
 Harmonic-Average Permeability
Permeability variations can occur laterally in a reservoir as well as in the vicinity of a well bore. For a steady-
state flow, the flow rate is constant and the total pressure drop Dp is equal to the sum of the pressure drops
across each bed,
or Dp =D p1 +D p2 +D p3
Substituting for the pressure drop by applying Darcy’s equation
 Averaging Permeability (Stratified)

If flow direction is perpendicular to bedding harmonic averages are valid

n
Q in ∆P = Σ ∆Pi
i=l

K1 K2
Harmonic Average h1 h1

n
Σ hi
Kv = i=l
n
hi
Σ
l Ki
 Geometric-Average Permeability
Warren and Price (1961) illustrated experimentally that the most probable behavior of a heterogeneous formation
approaches that of a uniform system having a permeability that is equal to the geometric average. The geometric
average is defined mathematically by the following relationship:
 Averaging Permeability
(Randomly Distributed Permeability)

Geometric Average

K = n Kh1 . Kh2 . Kh3 …. Khn

Q in K1

K2 Ki
 Rock-Fluid Reaction & Effect on Permeability

oRock-fluid reaction can increase or decrease permeability

oAnhydrite (anhydrous Calcium sulfate, CaSO4) dissolution increases

Permeability

oClay swelling or deflocculation reduces permeability

 ROCK COMPRESSIBILITY
Rock-matrix compressibility, cr
Is defined as the fractional change in volume of the solid rock material (grains) with a unit change in pressure.
Mathematically, the rock compressibility coefficient is given by

• Rock-bulk compressibility, cB
Is defined as the fractional change in volume of the bulk volume of
the rock with a unit change in pressure. The rock-bulk
compressibility is defined mathematically by:
• Pore compressibility, cp
The pore compressibility coefficient is defined as the fractional change in pore volume of the rock with a unit
change in pressure and given by the following relationship:

where p= pore pressure,

psi cp = pore compressibility coefficient,
psi-1 Vp = pore volume
SATURATION DISTRIBUTION,
CAPILLARITY & RELATIVE
PERMEABILITY
 SATURATION
Saturation
  is defined as that fraction, or percent, of the pore volume occupied by a particular fluid (oil, gas, or
water). This property is expressed mathematically by the following relationship:
Fluid saturation
Applying the above mathematical concept of saturation to each reservoir fluid gives
So…………………….(1)
Sg……………………(2)
Sw…………………..(3)
where So = oil saturation Sg = gas saturation Sw = water saturation
Thus, all saturation values are based on pore volume and not on the gross reservoir volume. The saturation of each
individual phase ranges between zero to 100 percent. By definition, the sum of the saturations is 100%, therefore
Sg + So + Sw = 1.0
The fluids in most reservoirs are believed to have reached a state of equilibrium and, therefore, will have become
separated according to their density, i.e., oil overlain by gas and underlain by water. In addition to the bottom (or
edge) water, there will be connate water distributed throughout the oil and gas zones. The water in these zones will
have been reduced to some irreducible minimum. The forces retaining the water in the oil and gas zones are referred
to as capillary forces because they are important only in pore spaces of capillary size.

Another particular phase saturation of interest is called the critical saturation and it is associated with each
reservoir fluid. The definition and the significance of the critical saturation for each phase is described below.
Critical oil saturation, Soc
For the oil phase to flow, the saturation of the oil must exceed a certain value which is termed critical oil
saturation. At this particular saturation, the oil remains in the pores and, for all practical purposes, will not flow.
Residual oil saturation, Sor
During the displacing process of the crude oil system from the porous media by water or gas injection (or
encroachment) there will be some remaining oil left that is quantitatively characterized by a saturation value that is
larger than the critical oil saturation. This saturation value is called the residual oil saturation, Sor. The term
residual saturation is usually associated with the non wetting phase when it is being displaced by a wetting phase.
Movable oil saturation, Som
Movable oil saturation Som is another saturation of interest and is defined as the fraction of pore volume occupied
by movable oil as expressed by the following equation:
Som = 1 - Swc - Soc
where Swc = connate water saturation
Soc = critical oil saturation
Critical gas saturation, Sgc
As the reservoir pressure declines below the bubble-point pressure, gas evolves from the oil phase and
consequently the saturation of the gas increases as the reservoir pressure declines. The gas phase remains
immobile until its saturation exceeds a certain saturation, called critical gas saturation, above which gas begins to
move.
Critical water saturation, Swc
The critical water saturation, connate water saturation, and irreducible water saturation are extensively used
interchangeably to define the maximum water saturation at which the water phase will remain immobile
 Fluid Saturation
Distribution of fluids in the reservoir

Sand Grains
Petroleum reservoirs typically contain two
types of fluids (Hydrocarbons and Water)
Oil
Gas

Original or static distribution of reservoir

fluids is controlled by Capillary Pressure

Sw + So + Sg = 100%
Sw + S h = 1
 Fluid Saturation Measurements
(Retort Method)

Heat rock samples to vaporize oil and water

Measure volume of condensed oil and water vapour

Measure volume of gas from neighbouring rock samples

 Fluid Saturation Measurements
(Log Calculations)
Using The Archie Saturation Equation [ Rt = (aRw)/(ΦmSwn)]
Swn = (aRw)/(ΦmRt)
S h = 1 - Sw
Where, Rt = True formation resistivity
a = Tortuosity factor
Rw = Formation water resistivity
Φ = Porosity
m = Cementation factor
n = Saturation exponent
Sw = Formation water saturation
Sh = Hydrocarbon saturation
 WETTABILITY
Wettability is defined as the tendency of one fluid to spread on or adhere to a solid surface in the presence of other immiscible
fluids. The concept of wettability is illustrated in Figure 4-1. Small drops of three liquids—mercury, oil, and water—are placed
on a clean glass plate. The three droplets are then observed from one side as illustrated in Figure 4-1. It is noted that the mercury
retains a spherical shape, the oil droplet develops an approximately hemispherical shape, but the water tends to spread over the
glass surface.
The tendency of a liquid to spread over the surface of a solid is an indication of the wetting characteristics of the liquid for the
solid. This spreading tendency can be expressed more conveniently by measuring the angle of contact at the liquid-solid surface.
This angle, which is always measured through the liquid to the solid, is called the contact angle θ .

The contact angle θ has achieved significance as a measure of wettability. As shown in Figure 4-1, as the contact angle
decreases, the wetting characteristics of the liquid increase. Complete wettability would be evidenced by a zero contact angle,
and complete non wetting would be evidenced by a contact angle of 180°. There have been various definitions of intermediate
wettability but, in much of the published literature, contact angles of 60° to 90° will tend to repel the liquid.

The wettability of reservoir rocks to the fluids is important in that the distribution of the fluids in the porous media is a function
of wettability. Because of the attractive forces, the wetting phase tends to occupy the smaller pores of the rock and the non
wetting phase occupies the more open channels.
 Oil Wet
 Preference of a solid to be in contact with an oil phase
rather than a water or gas phase

 Oil-wet rocks preferentially imbibe oil

 Water-Wet
Adhesion of water to the surface of a solid
In water-wet conditions a thin film of water coats the
surface of the formation matrix
Water-wet is desirable for efficient oil transport
Water-wet rocks preferentially imbibe water
 Imbibition

This is the process of absorbing a wetting phase into a porous rock

Spontaneous imbibition refers to the process of absorption with no pressure driving
the phase into the rock
Imbibition is important in a water drive reservoir because it can advance or hinder
water movement, affecting areal sweep.
 Possible for the same rock to imbibe both water and oil, with water imbibing at low
in-situ water saturation, displacing excess oil from the surface of the rock grains, and
oil imbibing at low in-situ oil saturation, displacing excess water
The wettability of a rock is determined by which phase imbibes more
 Drainage

Process of forcing a non-wetting phase into a porous rock

Oil migrates into most reservoirs as the non-wetting phase so

initial charging of reservoirs is a drainage process
 SURFACE AND INTERFACIAL TENSION

In dealing with multiphase systems, it is necessary to consider the effect of the forces at the interface when two
immiscible fluids are in contact. When these two fluids are liquid and gas, the term surface tension is used to
describe the forces acting on the interface. When the interface is between two liquids, the acting forces are called
interfacial tension.
Surfaces of liquids are usually blanketed with what acts as a thin film. Although this apparent film possesses little
strength, it nevertheless acts like a thin membrane and resists being broken. This is believed to be caused by
attraction between molecules within a given system.
Consider the two immiscible fluids, air (or gas) and water (or oil) as shown schematically in Figure 4-2. A liquid
molecule, which is remote from the interface, is surrounded by other liquid molecules, thus having a resulting net
attractive force on the molecule of zero. A molecule at the interface, however, has a force acting on it from the air
(gas) molecules lying immediately above the interface and from liquid molecules lying below the interface.
Resulting forces are unbalanced and give rise to surface tension. The unbalanced attraction force between the
molecules creates a membrane like surface with a measurable tension, i.e., surface tension. As a matter of fact, if
carefully placed, a needle will float on the surface of the liquid, supported by the thin membrane even though it is
considerably more dense than the liquid. The surface or interfacial tension has the units of force per unit of length,
and is usually denoted by the symbol σ.
 What is Capillary Pressure?
Capillary Pressure is defined as the pressure difference across a curved interface
between two immiscible fluids
water

Oil
Pc = P o - P w

Pw •• Po

Where, Pc = Capillary Pressure

Po = Pressure in oil
Pw = Pressure in water
 Capillary Pressure
Controls static distribution of reservoir fluids
Provides a mechanism for hydrocarbon movement through the reservoir
Can be used to calculate or estimate:
Reservoir Rock Quality
Net pay or non-pay, classification of pay types
Seal capacity of rocks or faults HAFWL

Expected maximum hydrocarbon column

Free water level
Thickness and location of transition zone Water

Types of fluid produced at different levels in reservoir Pore size distribution (Textural Effect)

Recovery efficiency of rocks of varied pore types Pc = const

Residual oil saturation after primary or secondary recovery r
 Capillary Pressure (Pc)
Pc results from interaction of forces (Cohesive and Adhesive Forces)
There are two types of cohesive forces
1. Surface tension 2. Interfacial tension
Surface tension is the force of attraction of molecules to each other on the
surface of a liquid
Interfacial tension is the force of attraction of molecules between two
immiscible liquids
Adhesive Forces are the forces of attraction between any liquid and a solid
(e.g. Oil-Rock)
When adhesive forces exceed cohesive forces the system is “wetting”
When cohesive forces exceed adhesive forces the system is “non-wetting”
Why is capillary pressure important?
Capillary Pressure and Pore Throat sizes
Converting lab Pc to Reservoir Pc
Capillary Pressure and Reservoir Types
 Capillary Pressure

General Equation

water

Oil
1 + 1
Pw •• Po Pc = σ
R1 R2

σ = interfacial tension
R1, R 2 = principal radii of the curvature
normal to each other
 Fluid Saturation & Capillary Pressure
Characteristics
During migration of hydrocarbon, hydrocarbon (non-wetting phase) enter
pore space initially occupied by water (wetting phase)

Water is retained by capillary forces during and after hydrocarbon

accumulation

Distribution of water saturation above free water level is controlled by the

balance of imbibition capillary pressure and gravity

Capillary pressure relates to reservoir rock and reservoir fluid properties

Capillary Pressure Rise of Wetting Liquid

Pc = 2 σCosθ
TCos
T
r
r
Pc = const
r
θ
Air
σ = interfacial tension between immiscible fluids
water θ = contact angle
 Textural Effect on Fluid
Distribution

Pc = const
r

Height Above Water Level

Water 0 Water Saturation 100
Percentage Pore Space
Pore size distribution (Textural Effect)
 Textural Effect on Fluid Distribution

Texture effect – Pore Size Distribution (PSD)

Variation in capillary radius are controlled by pore geometry

Texture - a function of rock properties such as porosity and

permeability

PSD is major controlling factor on magnitude of irreducible

water saturation
 Fluid contact and reservoir rock quality

A sharp fluid contact is

an indication of a good
reservoir rock

Water

Pore size distribution (Textural Effect)

Reservoir Rock Quality Indicator
Pc and Production – Rock Type 1
Pc and Production – Rock Type 2
Pc and Production – Rock Types 1 and 2
combined
Relative Permeability
 Relative Permeability
This provides an extension of Darcy’s Law to movement of more than a
single fluid within the pore space

Relative permeability Kr is defined as the effective permeability Ke of

water/oil/gas divided by a base or reference permeability K ( e.g. Kw at 100%
water saturation)
Kr = Ke/K

Effective permeability is the ability to transmit a particular fluid when other

immiscible fluids are present in the reservoir

In oil-water systems, the base relative permeability is often taken as

effective permeability to oil (Ko) at initial water saturation (Swi)
 Relative
Permeability

For a particular rock type with defined pore geometry and wettability,
relative permeabilities are saturation dependent and subject to hysteresis
(imbibition and drainage)

Relative permeability data are essential for almost all calculations of fluid
flow in hydrocarbon reservoirs

Kr data are used in making engineering estimates of well productivity,

injectivity, fluid distribution and ultimate recovery from reservoirs for
evaluation and planning of production operations
 Relative Permeability

Linear Scale Semi-log Scale

1 1.0 Kro
Kro Oil
water K
rw

Oil
Kr Kr

Krw
water

Swi Sor
0 Swi Sor 0.0001
0 0.2 0.4 0.6 0.8 1.0 0 0.2 0.4 0.6 0.8 1.0
Water Saturation Water Saturation
Relative Permeability
Relative Permeability v. Capillary
Pressure
Types of Relative Perm & End Point
Saturations

Water/Oil Relative permeability (Kr) – aquifer influx into oil zone & water
injection
Oil/water Kr – the oil bank displacing water in reservoirs during EOR process
Gas/oil Kr – gas cap expansion to oil zone, solution gas drive, gas coning &
gas injection
Oil/gas Kr – oil invading a gas cap
Water/gas Kr – trapped gas saturation existing after water displacement
Gas/water Kr – gas expansion into an aquifer during gas storage operations
Three phase Kr – required when oil is displaced by simultaneous gas/water
flow in EOR process
Relative Permeability
Experiments
 MEASUREMENT OF PERMEABILITY
+Y
q = kA(P1-P2)/μL L
A
q= Volume flow rate
q q
k= Permeability
O +X
A= Core area perpendicular to flow direction
P1= Upstream pressure at location 1 μ
1 k 2
P2 = Downstream pressure at location 2
P1 P2
μ=Dynamic viscosity of flowing fluid
Rock Core Samples with Symbols for the
L= Distance over which pressure drop P2 – P1 occurs Darcy Equation
 Linear, Steady State & Incompressible Flow
Core plug is cleaned with chemical solvents to remove all original fluids from the rock
and saturated with 100% pure water
To achieve linear and steady state flow the surface of the core plug is sealed to prevent
the fluid from leaking out during flow
Incompressible state is achieved by maintaining pressures above the bubble point
pressure
Steady state and incompressible flow are achieved when upstream pressure and
+ L
discharge pressure remain constant with time; at this state flow parameters are Y A
measured (q, P1 and P2)
q q
O +
Length and diameter of core known before experiment; A also known before
experiment X
μ
Dynamic viscosity measured using a viscometer 1 k 2
P P
Darcy Equation for this experiment can be expressed as q = kA(P 1-P2)/μL 1 2

Permeability k calculated from these measured parameters was found to be 161mD

Another experiment conducted using a similar core plug 100% saturated with oil
under steady state incompressible flow conditions, k was found to be 161mD
 ABSOLUTE PERMEABILITY

The experiments show that for a particular rock system 100%

saturated with a single liquid, the permeability to flow of the
flowing liquid is dependent only on the rock structure itself
and not upon the flowing liquid
This permeability is identified as the absolute permeability
(kabsolute)
(kabsolute) = 161mD
 RELATIVE PERMEABILITY

Reservoirs are not 100% saturated with a single liquid ( e.g. So =

80%, Sw = 20%)
This 20% water saturation is water in the oil zone and not
water beneath the oil zone
This water is referred to as the irreducible water saturation
The well will initially produce 100% oil
 RELATIVE PERMEABILITY EXPERIMENTS
Consider a series of experiments with
various degrees of water saturations
ranging from 0% - 100% at reservoir
temperature of 160oF
Pressures maintained above bubble point L
pressure so that no gas is present
A
qtotal= qo + qw
qtotal O

Sw range of 0, 10, 20, 30, 40, 50% etc

So range of 100, 90, 80,70, 60, 50% etc μ
1 k 2
qo = koA (P1-P2)/μoL P1 P2
qw=kwA (P1-P2)/μwL Rock core sample with symbols for the Darcy
Equation, for combined flow of oil and water
All parameters can be measured except ko
and kw

Ko is calculated to be 19mD & kw = 35mD at

So = 40% and Sw = 60%
 Relative Permeability

Ko = 19 mD, kw = 35 mD at Sw = 60% and So = 40%

It will be noted that these values are less than the absolute permeability (161 mD)
ko + kw < kabsolute

These results permit the calculation of relative permeability to the flow of oil k RO and
relative permeability to the flow of water kRW for specified saturation conditions

KRO = ko/kabsolute , KRW = kw/kabsolute

For the saturation of Sw = 60% and So = 40%

KRO = 19 mD/161 mD = 0.12, KRW = 35 mD/161 mD = 0.22

 Results of Relative Permeability Experiment
Sw % So% Kw mD Ko mD KRW KRO
0 100 0 161
10 90 0 159
20 80 0 150
30 70 3 97
40 60 8 56
Kabsolute = 161mD
50 50 19 39
60 40 35 19
70 30 58 8
80 20 84 2
90 10 116 0
100 0 161 0

qo = koA (P1-P2)/μoL KRO = ko/kabsolute , KRW = kw/kabsolute

Interpretation of Relative Permeability Curves
1.0
Linear Scale
1 Kro
Relative Permeability KRO And KRW 0.8

Oil
0.6 Kr

Krw
water
0.4

0 Swi Sor
0.2 0 0.2 0.4 0.6 0.8
Water Saturation

0
0 0.2 0.4 0.6 0.8 1.0
Water Saturation Sw
 Interpretation of Relative Permeability Curves

When Sw = 20% KRW = 0 and kw = 0

What will be the % oil in the initial well production?
At 20% Sw, KRO = ?, and What is ko?
The water in the reservoir at Sw = 20% is called …………..
At what water saturation will the reservoir produce only water?
What name is given to the oil at water saturation of 85%?
What happens to the flow of oil when water saturation increases from 30% to 60%?
What drive mechanism will you propose for a reservoir with relative permeability data similar to this
experiment?
Summary