TDC 425

Voice / Data Network Fundamentals

Class 1
Helpful Web Sites
 www.whatis.com – online technical dictionary and encyclopedia.
Also has white papers.
 www.Telephonyonline.com
 Register for daily news feeds
 White papers on all telecom / network topics
 Weekly editions
 www.Fiercewireless.com
 Register for daily news feeds
 White papers on all wireless network topics
 www.Searchtelecom.com
 White papers on all telecom / network topics
 www.Searchnetworking.com
 White papers on all telecom / network topic
 www.iec.org – web site of International Engineering Consortium
 Dozens of tutorials on all topics in networking and telecom
 Online Education>White papers
Class 1 Agenda
 Course Orientation
 Categories of Networks (Chap. 1)
 Data Network Models (Chap. 1)
 The OSI Model
 The TCP/IP Model
 Basic Data Communications (Chap. 2)
 Data: Analog vs. Digital
 Signal: Analog vs. Digital
 Converting analog/digital data to
analog/digital signal
TDC-425 Voice / Data Network Fundamentals 3
 Course Orientation
Course Goals and Overview
 Understand and be able to describe:
 Data Communications Technologies
 Local Area Network (LAN) Technologies (plus PAN, MAN, WAN)
 Internet Technologies (?)
 Voice Communications Technologies
 Wireless technologies
 Be able to choose appropriate network technologies for particular business
applications.
 Understand fundamental issues of interoperability and convergence.
 Convergence: The combination of two or more different technologies in a
single device. Taking pictures with a cell phone and surfing the Web on a
television (or watching TV from PC) are two of the most common examples
of this trend.
TDC-425 Voice / Data Network Fundamentals 4
Course Orientation
 Lecture Slides (PowerPoint)
 Lecture Slides will be available on COL (TDC 425)
by Thurs. noon each week. (too late?)

(I may still make minor modifications before the

class time at 5:45 PM.)

TDC-425 Voice / Data Network Fundamentals 5

 Course Orientation
 Grading Policy:
 30% - 2 Homework Assignments
 25% - Midterm Exam
 30% - Final Exam
 15% - 2 Media Reviews (or 2 projects or one each)

 Midterm Exam will be Week 5

 Final Exam will be Week 11

TDC-425 Voice / Data Network Fundamentals 6

 Course Orientation

Grading Scale:
 90 - 100: A
 85 - 89: B+
 80 - 84: B
 75 - 79 C+
 70 - 74 C
 65 - 69 D+
 60 - 64 D
 59 and below F

7
Course Orientation
 2 Homework Assignments (30%).
 Must be submitted via COL.

TDC-425 Voice / Data Network Fundamentals 8

Course Orientation
 Mid-term: Week 5

 Final exam: Week 11 (Cumulative)

Exams are open-book, open-notes, open-

internet.

TDC-425 Voice / Data Network Fundamentals 9

Course Orientation
Media Reviews (15 %)
 For a list of topics to be given, you must

 Find a current news article that relates to the

given topics on data communications for the 1st
review and on voice communications for the 2nd
review.
 Write a 2-to-3-page Media Review with
 Complete citation for article read
 Summary of article contents
 Discussion of article contents and relationship to class
discussion, if applicable
 Submit the 2 Media Reviews via COL.
TDC-425 Voice / Data Network Fundamentals 10
 Course Orientation
 Instructor: Andrew S. Wang (Prof. Wang “Wong”)
 Cell Phone (texting): 630-697-1745
 Office Hours: Thursdays, 4:00 – 5:30, Rm. 429 CDM Center
Most issues were resolved via emails
 E-Mail Address: on COL (awang@cdm.depaul.edu)

I check e-mails all the time! You will see.

11
 Course Orientation
 Education: 

B.S. in EE (Taiwan)

M.S. in CS (Univ. of Tenn., Knoxville, TN)
 Ph. D. in CS (Purdue Univ.)
 Career:

24 years in Telecommunications/Wireless at
Alcatel/Lucent, Lucent, AT&T Bell Laboratories
(NJ and Chicago)

12
 Course Orientation
 College Teaching experience since April, 2008
 DeVry University in Tinley Park/Addison

 Electronics, microprocessors
 Structured Programming, C++
 Telecommunications (e.g., VoIP)
 DePaul University
 Cellular/Wireless, TDC 512, Autumn 2009
 Voice Communications Systems, TDC 464, Winter 2001

13
 Course Orientation

My teaching philosophy/approaches:
• Make students think, ask why, and understand!
• Ask a lot of questions in class, enjoy classroom interaction
• Open-book policy for exams.
• In-class (group) exercises
• I may skip some slides, at my discretion.
• Every announcement will be on COL (w/ email reminder)

Love to receive emails/phone calls/texting from students.

Love to talk about Bulls and Bears, and war/history movies

14
 Course Orientation

REQUIRED TEXT AND READING

 Data Communications and Computer Networks , Sixth Edition,

Curt White, 2010, Course Technology, Cengage Learning.

ISBN: 0-538-45261-7

15
 Course Orientation
•  
COURSE OUTLINE:
 Overview of Computer Networks and Data Communications
 Fundamentals of Data and Signals
 Multiplexing, Errors, Error Detection, and Error Control
 Local Area Networks: The Basics and inter-networking
 MAN and WAN
 Voice Communications (wired and wireless)
 Network Security
 Network Design and Management

16
 Course Orientation
The Students: 7 on-campus 11 distance-learning
 Your name?

 Your major/program? Why did you choose this course?

 Your background (areas of courses you’ve taken at DePaul)?

 Anything about your previous jobs/current job?

 Your goals for your study at DePaul?

 Your expectation for this course?

 Whatever you want to ask/share?

17
What is Telecommunications?
 The science and technology of communication
at a distance by electronic transmission of
impulses, as by telegraph, cable, telephone,
radio waves, or video.
 The electronic systems used in transmitting
information, either by telegraph, cable,
telephone, radio, or television can be:
 Voice
 Data
 Video
 Image
 Integrated / Converged
TDC-425 Voice / Data Network Fundamentals 18
The Language of Computer Networks
 Computer network - an interconnection of computers and
computing equipment using either wires, optical fiber
(glass), or radio waves over small or large geographic
distances.

 Data communications - the transfer of digital or analog

data using digital or analog signals. NOTE: Today, the
vast majority of data communications is digital (> 90%)

 Voice network - a network that transmits voice

communication signals.

 Data network - a network that transmits (computer) data.

(i.e. E-mail, files, documents, commerce transactions)

TDC-425 Voice / Data Network Fundamentals 19

The Language of Computer Networks
 Telecommunications - The exchange of information over
significant distances by electronic means. A complete,
single telecommunications circuit consists of two stations,
each equipped with a transmitter and a receiver. The
transmitter and receiver at any station may be combined
into a single device called a transceiver. The medium of
signal transmission can be electrical wire or cable (also
known as "copper"), optical fiber or electromagnetic
fields. The free-space transmission and reception of data
by means of electromagnetic fields is called wireless.

 Network management - the approach, design,

installation, and support of a network and its hardware and
software.
TDC-425 Voice / Data Network Fundamentals 20
 Categories of Networks

Networks

Personal Area Network Local Area Network Metropolitan Area Network Wide Area Network
(PAN) (LAN) (MAN) (WAN)

TDC-425 Voice / Data Network Fundamentals 21

PAN

TDC-425 Voice / Data Network Fundamentals 22

 PAN
 An area with radius of 10 meters or 30 feet.
 Example:
 Laptop “on the road”, (portable) printer, PDA,

cell phone with bluetooth-enabled connection,

car ignition w/o a key
 Typically, a PAN is also connected to a LAN or
wirelessly, to the Internet.
 Q.: Why do we need a PAN if we can connect the
devices together using wires?

TDC-425 Voice / Data Network Fundamentals 23

LAN
 Local Area Network
 Networks that are small in geographic size

spanning a room, building, or campus.

 Usually privately owned

 Linking computing devices in home (using

what network devices?), in a single office,

building, or campus
 Q.: DePaul has a separate LAN for each

building?

TDC-425 Voice / Data Network Fundamentals 24

LAN
 Local Area Network

Why do these PCs need to be connected together?

TDC-425 Voice / Data Network Fundamentals 25

LAN (three different topologies)

TDC-425 Voice / Data Network Fundamentals 26

LAN (Why need hubs?)
(Diff. between hub and switch?)

TDC-425 Voice / Data Network Fundamentals 27

MAN
 Metropolitan Area Network
 Networks that serve an area of 3 to 30 miles -
approximately the area of a typical city and/or
suburbs
 Extends over an entire city and/or suburbs

TDC-425 Voice / Data Network Fundamentals 28

MAN: Fast and reliable

TDC-425 Voice / Data Network Fundamentals 29

WAN
 Wide Area Network
 A large network that traverses parts of states, multiple
states, countries, and/or the world.

TDC-425 Voice / Data Network Fundamentals 30

 WAN (One LAN to WAN via
__)
Q.: Why “Hub or Switch”?

TDC-425 Voice / Data Network Fundamentals 31

WAN: PC to WAN via ________

TDC-425 Voice / Data Network Fundamentals 32

 WAN (in-class exercise)

The network device that connects a LAN to a WAN is:

1) Hub
2) Bridge
3) NIC (Network Interface Card)
4) Router
5) Repeater
6) Modem

TDC-425 Voice / Data Network Fundamentals 33

OSI - The Model: The NIC!

TDC-425 Voice / Data Network Fundamentals 34

Communications Bandwidth
 How many bits per second are needed to
transfer each type of information?
 Voice
 Audio (Music)
 Data
 Video

TDC-425 Voice / Data Network Fundamentals 35

Communications Bandwidth (cont.)
 Bandwidth Required:
 Standard Digital Voice: 64,000 bits/sec (64 Kbps)
 Compressed Digital Voice (Digital Cell Phone):
8 – 12 Kbps
 Highly Compressed Voice (Digital Answering
Machines): 4 – 6 Kbps

TDC-425 Voice / Data Network Fundamentals 36

Communications Bandwidth (cont.)
 Bandwidth determines storage requirements:
 How much RAM is needed to store one hour of
standard digital voice?

bits 1byte 60 sec 60 min

(64,000 )( )( )( )
sec 8 bits 1 min 1hour
bytes Mbytes
 28,800,000  28.8
hour hour

TDC-425 Voice / Data Network Fundamentals 37

Communications Bandwidth (cont.)
 Don’t confuse bits and bytes!
 1 byte = 8 bits.
 28.8 Kbps = 28,800 bits per second.
 28.8 KBps = 28,800 bytes per second.
 Note:
 1 Kpbs = 1,000 bits per second, not 1,024.
 1 Mbps = 1,000,000 bits per second, not
1,048,576.

TDC-425 Voice / Data Network Fundamentals 38

 Data Communications: Bandwidth
Reference for slides 38 to 43:
Network Fundamentals (Cisco Networking Academy)
(Reference 1)
 Don’t confuse bandwidth and throughput
Three ways to analyze the transfer speed of data on
a mediums:
 Theoretically as bandwidth
 Practically as throughput
 Qualitatively as goodput

TDC-425 Voice / Data Network Fundamentals 39

 Data Communications: Bandwidth
 Don’t confuse bandwidth and throughput
 Theoretically as bandwidth
 The capacity of a medium to carry data in a period of time.
 Practically as throughput
 The actual transfer rate of data over the medium in a period of time.
 Bandwidth is the capacity of moving data, but attaining that
capacity is rare because of medium sharing (collisions), _______,
and _____.
 It is useful to plan networks around expected throughput and the
actual rate of speed rather than the theoretical bandwidth.
 Qualitatively as goodput

TDC-425 Voice / Data Network Fundamentals 40

 Data Communications: Bandwidth
 Don’t confuse bandwidth and throughput
 Qualitatively as goodput
 The transfer rate of actual usable data.

 Goodput = data throughput – overhead

= data throughput - (protocol overhead bits, error

corrections, and retransmission requests)
 Goodput = throughput – (traffic overhead for

establishing sessions, acknowledgements and

encapsulation)

TDC-425 Voice / Data Network Fundamentals 41

 Data Communications: Throughput
Many factors influence throughput:
 The amount of traffic

 The type of traffic

 The number of network devices encountered on the

network being measured.

 In a multi-access topology such as Ethernet, nodes are
competing for media access and its use, therefore the
throughput of each node is degraded as usage of the
media (increases, decreases)?

TDC-425 Voice / Data Network Fundamentals 42

 Data Communications: Throughput
Many factors influence throughput:
 In an internetwork or network with multiple

segments, throughput cannot be faster than

the (slowest , fastest) link of the path from
source to destination.
 Even if all or most of the segments have high

bandwidth, it will take only one segment in the path

with low throughput to create a bottleneck to the
throughput of the entire network.

TDC-425 Voice / Data Network Fundamentals 43

 Data Communications: Throughput
For example, consider two hosts on a LAN transferring
a file:
 The bandwidth of the LAN is 100 Mbps.

 The throughput between the two hosts is only 60

Mbps.
 With the overhead of the encapsulation process of

the TCP/IP stack, the actual rate of data received by

the destination computer, the goodput, is only 40
Mbps.

TDC-425 Voice / Data Network Fundamentals 44

Data Communications
 Bandwidth Requirements
 Compact Disc: up to ~560 Mbytes of data played
out at ~700 Kbps
 High-quality MP3-compressed music: 128 Kbps
 Medium-quality MP3-compressed music: 24 Kbps

TDC-425 Voice / Data Network Fundamentals 45

Communications Bandwidth (cont.)
 Bandwidth Required for Computer Data varies
greatly depending on the data:
 Text-based mainframe application programs: 9.6
Kbps
 E-mail: 28.8 Kbps is generally OK (depending on
attachments)
 File transfers, Web surfing: As much as possible!!

TDC-425 Voice / Data Network Fundamentals 46

Data Communications
 How much bandwidth can you get over your
access line into the network?
 Example: Internet access:
 Modem access: 28 Kbps – 56 Kbps
 Can you really get 56Kbps via a modem?
 DSL access: 128 Kbps – 1500 Kbps (1.5 Mbps)
 Cable modem: up to 10 Mbps (shared)
 DePaul: 10 x DS1 = 15.36 Mbps

TDC-425 Voice / Data Network Fundamentals 47

Video Communications
 Bandwidth Required for video:
 Digital studio motion picture: ~120 Mbps
 Studio-quality compressed video: 45 Mbps
 “VCR-quality” video (MPEG-1): 1.5 Mbps
 “Business-quality” interactive videoconference: 64
– 384 Kbps
 “Internet-quality” video: 10 - 32 Kbps Modem
access: 28 Kbps – 56 Kbps

TDC-425 Voice / Data Network Fundamentals 48

 Computer Networks
 Networks are composed of many devices, including:
 Workstations (desktops, laptops, real workstations) – hosts
 Servers – hosts
 Nodes – hosts
 Hubs (network device of broadcast domain)
 Bridges and Switches (network device of collision domain)
 Routers (network device between LANs and WANs)

TDC-425 Voice / Data Network Fundamentals 49

Computer Networks (cont.)

TDC-425 Voice / Data Network Fundamentals 50

Computer Networks (cont.)
 Basic Configurations
 Computer terminal to mainframe computer
 Microcomputer to mainframe computer
 Microcomputer to local area network
 Microcomputer to Internet
 Local area network to local area network
 Local area network to wide area network
 Sensor to local area network
 Satellite and microwave
 Wireless devices (i.e. handsets, PDAs, tablets,
smart phones [iPhone])
TDC-425 Voice / Data Network Fundamentals 51
Basic Configurations
 Computer terminal to mainframe computer
 Used in many types of businesses for data entry
and data retrieval.
 Usually involves a low-speed connection.
 Motor Vehicle Station!

TDC-425 Voice / Data Network Fundamentals 52

Basic Configurations

TDC-425 Voice / Data Network Fundamentals 53

Basic Configurations
 Microcomputer to local area network
 Very common throughout business and academic
environments.
 Typically a medium- to high-speed connection.

TDC-425 Voice / Data Network Fundamentals 54

Basic Configurations

TDC-425 Voice / Data Network Fundamentals 55

Basic Configurations
 Microcomputer to Internet
 Very popular with home users.
 Typically a modem is used to connect user’s
microcomputer to an Internet Service Provider
(ISP).
 Newer technologies such as DSL and cable
modems are replacing modems.

TDC-425 Voice / Data Network Fundamentals 56

Basic Configurations

TDC-425 Voice / Data Network Fundamentals 57

Basic Configurations
 Local area network to local area network
 Found in businesses and schools that have two or
more LANs and a need for them to
intercommunicate.
 The bridge is a typical device used to
interconnect LANs. (a layer 2 device, the
predecessor of a switch)

TDC-425 Voice / Data Network Fundamentals 58

Basic Configurations

TDC-425 Voice / Data Network Fundamentals 59

Basic Configurations
 Local area network to wide area network
 One of the best ways to interconnect a user on a
workstation to the Internet (a wide area network).
 A router is the typical device that performs LAN
to WAN connections.

TDC-425 Voice / Data Network Fundamentals 60

Basic Configurations

TDC-425 Voice / Data Network Fundamentals 61

Basic Configurations
 Satellite and microwave
 Many types of applications including long distance
telephone, television, radio, long-haul data
transfers, and wireless data services (backbone
network).
 Typically expensive services but many companies
offer competitive services and rates.

TDC-425 Voice / Data Network Fundamentals 62

Basic Configurations

TDC-425 Voice / Data Network Fundamentals 63

Basic Configurations
 Wireless Service(s)
 Cellular service first launched in 1983 in Chicago, Illinois by
Illinois Bell.
 First generation (1G) service:
 All analog, more prone to noise, crosstalk, call drops
 Limited system capacity
 Used 850 Mhz frequency spectrum
 1983 – 1994
 KEY DIFFERENTIATOR: first instance of frequency re-use to
exponentially increase capacity over previous mobile systems
 Second generation (2G) service:
 Also known as “PCS” (Personal Communication Service)
 Co-existed with analog service for 15 years
 Used different frequency spectrum (1900 Mhz / 1.9 Ghz)
 KEY DIFFERENTIATOR: all digital service, voice and low-
speed data
TDC-425 Voice / Data Network Fundamentals 64
Basic Configurations
 Wireless Service(s) Continued:
 Third generation (3G) service:
 All digital
 “Always On” Internet access
 High-speed data access and transmission (> 384 Kbps)
 Technologies: UMTS (GSM-based), CDMA 1X-EVDO
 KEY DIFFERENTIATOR: supports sustainable multimedia
transmissions (i.e. voice, video, text, image, video)
 Fourth generation (4G)
 Launching in 2009 with Clearwire WiMax launch
 Key technologies: WiMax (802.16) and LTE (Long Term
Evolution)
 KEY DIFFERENTIATOR: super-fast access and transmissions
– tens of Megabits. Technology built into laptops.

TDC-425 Voice / Data Network Fundamentals 65

Basic Configurations

TDC-425 Voice / Data Network Fundamentals 66

Basic Configurations
 Don’t confuse “wireless services” (wireless
networks) with “wireless networking”.

TDC-425 Voice / Data Network Fundamentals 67

OSI - The Model
OSI (Open Systems Interconnection)

• OSI is a standard description or "reference model"

for how messages should be transmitted between any
two points in a telecommunication network. It
describes the layers of hardware and software
necessary to transmit data between two points. The
reference model defines seven layers of functions that
take place at each end of a communication.

TDC-425 Voice / Data Network Fundamentals 68

OSI - The Model
OSI (Open Systems Interconnection)

• Its purpose is to guide product implementors so

that their products will consistently work with other
products. (multiple vendors can develop different
layers and small vendors can compete.)

• It is also valuable as a single reference view of

communication that gives everyone a common
ground for education and discussion.
• The layered approach helps the trouble-shooting
and debugging.

TDC-425 Voice / Data Network Fundamentals 69

OSI - The Model

• Although OSI is not always strictly adhered to in

terms of keeping related functions together in a well-
defined layer, many if not most products involved in
telecommunication make an attempt to describe
themselves in relation to the OSI model.

TDC-425 Voice / Data Network Fundamentals 70

OSI - The Model

The main idea in OSI is that the process of

communication between two end points in a
telecommunication network can be divided into layers,
with each layer adding its own set of special, related
functions. Each communicating user or program is at a
computer equipped with these seven layers of function.

So, in a given message between users, there will be a

flow of data through each layer at one end down
through the layers in that computer and, at the other
end, when the message arrives, another flow of data up
through the layers in the receiving computer and
ultimately to the end user or program.
TDC-425 Voice / Data Network Fundamentals 71
 OSI - The Model

The actual programming and hardware that

furnishes these seven layers of function is
usually a combination of:

• The computer operating system,

• Applications (such as your Web browser),
• TCP/IP or alternative transport and network
protocols, and
• The software and hardware that enable you
to put a signal on one of the lines attached to
your computer. (The NIC!)
TDC-425 Voice / Data Network Fundamentals 72
OSI - The Model: The NIC!

TDC-425 Voice / Data Network Fundamentals 73

OSI - The Model

OSI divides telecommunication into seven layers.

The layers are in two groups.

The upper four layers are used whenever a message

passes from or to a user.

The lower three layers (up to the network layer) are

used when any message passes through the
intermediate host computers. Messages intended
for the end computers pass to the upper layers.
Messages destined for some other host are not passed
up to the upper layers but are forwarded to another
host. TDC-425 Voice / Data Network Fundamentals 74
OSI - The Model and Seven Layers

TDC-425 Voice / Data Network Fundamentals 75

 The Open System Interconnection Model (OSI)

 Seven Layers of communication functions

Application
Presentation User Data (messages)
Session
Transport Segment
Network Packet
Data Link Frame
Physical
OSI - The Model

There are two models that are required learning:

The OSI Model (7 layers), and

the TCP/IP Model (4 layers).

TDC-425 Voice / Data Network Fundamentals 77

OSI and TCP/IP model comparison

TDC-425 Voice / Data Network Fundamentals 78

Network Architecture Models
 OSI Model
 Layer 7 - Application Layer
 Functional application.

 Not end-user application programs (i.e. MS Office).

 Examples: File Transfer Protocol (FTP), Telnet, Simple

Mail Transport Protocol (SMTP)

 Where the application using the network resides.

TDC-425 Voice / Data Network Fundamentals 79

Network Architecture Models
 OSI Model
 Layer 7 - Application Layer Examples
 File Transfer Protocol (FTP): a standard Internet
protocol, is the simplest way to exchange files between
computers on the Internet.

 Telnet: Telnet is a user command and an underlying

TCP/IP protocol for accessing remote computers.
Through Telnet, an administrator or another user can
access someone else's computer remotely.

 Simple Mail Transport Protocol (SMTP): is a TCP/IP

protocol used in sending and receiving e-mail

TDC-425 Voice / Data Network Fundamentals 80

Application Layer

TDC-425 Voice / Data Network Fundamentals 81

Network Architecture Models
 OSI Model
 Layer 6 - Presentation Layer
 Provides conversions between different code sets (e.g.
ASCII to EBCDIC or vice versa)

 Data encryption / decryption protocols are considered

presentation layer protocols.

TDC-425 Voice / Data Network Fundamentals 82

Network Architecture Models
 OSI Model
 Layer 5 - Session Layer
 Responsible for establishing, maintaining, and
terminating sessions between user application programs.

 Sets up and manages logical sessions between client

programs and servers.
 Examples:
 Multiple sessions by the same web browser
 NetBIOS Extended User.
 Definition: NetBEUI (NetBIOS Extended User Interface) is a
new, extended version of NetBIOS, the program that lets
computers communicate within a local area network.  

TDC-425 Voice / Data Network Fundamentals 83

 Network Architecture Models
 OSI Model
 Layer 4 - Transport Layer
 Provides an end-to-end, error-free network connection.

 Provide mechanisms for sequentially organizing multiple

network layer (Layer 3) packets into a coherent message.

 Controls end-to-end error correction and flow control.

 Makes sure the data arrives at the destination exactly as it

left the source.

 Example: Transmission Control Protocol (TCP)

TDC-425 Voice / Data Network Fundamentals 84

Network Architecture Models
 OSI Model
 Layer 4 - Transport Layer
 Transmission Control Protocol (TCP): is a set

of rules (protocol) used along with the Internet

Protocol (IP) to send data in the form of
message units between computers over the
Internet. While IP takes care of handling the
actual delivery of the data, TCP takes care of
keeping track of the individual units of data
(called packets) that a message is divided into
for efficient routing through the Internet.

TDC-425 Voice / Data Network Fundamentals 85

Transport Layer (TCP)

TDC-425 Voice / Data Network Fundamentals 86

Process-to-Process delivery of a message

TDC-425 Voice / Data Network Fundamentals 87

Transport Layer – Example
 The next slide shows an example of transport
layer communication.
 Data coming from the upper layers have port
addresses j and k (j is the address of the sending
process, and k is the address of the receiving
process).
 Since the data size is larger than the network
layer can handle, the data are split into two
packets (Data1, Data2, each packet retaining the
port addresses (j and k).
 Then in the network layer, network addresses (A
and P) are added to each packet.
TDC-425 Voice / Data Network Fundamentals 88
Transport Layer – Example
Port: In programming, a port (noun) is a "logical
connection place" and specifically, using the
Internet's protocol, TCP/IP, the way a client program
specifies a particular server program on a computer
in a network.

When a service (server program) initially is started, it is

said to bind to its designated port number. When
any client program wants to use that server, it also
must request to bind to the designated port number.

Port numbers are from 0 to 65535. Ports 0 to 1024 are

reserved for use by certain privileged services.
TDC-425 Voice / Data Network Fundamentals 89
Transport Layer – Example

TDC-425 Voice / Data Network Fundamentals 90

Transport Layer – Example
TCP (Transport Control Protocol) is Transport Layer
protocol for reliable transmission end-to-end.
 The price you pay for this is: Overhead
(that is, slow.)

What if speedy delivery is your highest priority?

Then use UDP (User Datagram Protocol).

 Making a telephone call is like (TCP, UDP)?

 US mail is like (TCP, UDP)?

TDC-425 Voice / Data Network Fundamentals 91

Network Architecture Models
 OSI Model
 Layer 3 - Network Layer (“IP Layer”)
 Responsible for establishing, maintaining, and

terminating end-to-end network links.

 Transfers a data packet from node to node within the

network.

 Responsible for providing end-to-end addressing

schemes to computers which are not physically
connected to the same LAN. The Network layer knows
the address of the neighboring nodes in the
network, packages output with the correct network
address information, selects routes and Quality of
Service (QoS), and recognizes and forwards to the
Transport layer incoming messages for local host
domains.

TDC-425 Voice / Data Network Fundamentals 92

Network Architecture Models
 OSI Model
 Layer 3 - Network Layer (cont.)
 Sends data to correct address (possibly across multiple
networks)

 Enables inter-network routing of network layer data

packets.

 Network layer protocols are part of a particular network

operating system's protocol stack.

 Example: IP (Internet Protocol), Appletalk, Novell IPX

TDC-425 Voice / Data Network Fundamentals 93

Network Layer

TDC-425 Voice / Data Network Fundamentals 94

Source to destination delivery

TDC-425 Voice / Data Network Fundamentals 95

Network Layer – Example
 The next slide shows an example of network layer
communication.
 A node with network address A and physical address 10,
located on one LAN, is sending data to a node with network
address P and physical address 95, located on another LAN.

 Because the two devices are located on different networks,

we cannot use physical addresses only; the physical
addresses only have local jurisdiction. What we need here
are universal addresses that can pass through the LAN
boundaries.


The network (logical) addresses have this characteristic.

TDC-425 Voice / Data Network Fundamentals 96

Network Layer – Example

TDC-425 Voice / Data Network Fundamentals 97

Network Architecture Models
 OSI Model
 Layer 2 - Data Link Layer
 Responsible for taking the data and transforming it into a
frame with header, control and address information, and
error detection code.

 Sets up communications link between hardware

devices.

 Organizes the bit stream into structured frames.

 Provides error detection, notification, and recovery.

 Defines how to send data frames.
TDC-425 Voice / Data Network Fundamentals 98
Network Architecture Models
 OSI Model
 Layer 2 - Data Link Layer (cont.)
 Information added to the front of data is called a header,
and information added to the back of data is called a
trailer.

 Frames are built within the network interface card

(“NIC”) installed in a computer, according to the
predetermined frame layout particular to the network
architecture of the card (which is usually Ethernet).

 Example: Ethernet (Framing)

TDC-425 Voice / Data Network Fundamentals 99

Data Link Layer

TDC-425 Voice / Data Network Fundamentals 100

 = Router

Node-To-Node Delivery

TDC-425 Voice / Data Network Fundamentals 101

Data Link Layer – Example
 The next slide shows an example of data link
layer communication.
 A node with physical address 10 sends a frame to
a node with physical address 87.
 The two nodes are connected by a link.
 At the data link level this frame contains physical
addresses in the header.
 These are the only addresses needed.
 The rest of the header contains other information
needed at this level.
 The trailer usually contains extra bits needed for
error detection.
TDC-425 Voice / Data Network Fundamentals 102
Data Link Layer – Example

TDC-425 Voice / Data Network Fundamentals 103

Network Architecture Models
 OSI Model
 Layer 1 - Physical Layer
 Defines hardware specs.
 Transmission Rate.
 Bit encoding method.
 Cable types, etc.

 Responsible for establishing, maintaining, and

terminating physical connections between
communicating devices.

 Transmits and receives a stream of bits.

TDC-425 Voice / Data Network Fundamentals 104

Network Architecture Models
 OSI Model
 Layer 1 - Physical Layer (cont.)
 Is controlled by protocols, which define the electrical,
mechanical, and procedural specifications for data
transmission.

 Does not define the specifications for connectors and

cables, which are sometimes referred to as belonging to
layer 0.

 Defines how to send individual bits.

 Examples: Ethernet (Technology), T-1, and SONET.

TDC-425 Voice / Data Network Fundamentals 105

 Physical Layer

Transmission Medium could be copper cable, optical fiber

or microwave radio. Old days, coaxial cable too.

TDC-425 Voice / Data Network Fundamentals 106

Network Architecture Models
 OSI Model Examples:
 Layer 7: File Transfer Protocol (FTP)
 Layer 6: ASCII
 Layer 5: NetBEUI
 Layer 4: Transmission Control Protocol (TCP)
Layer 3: Internet Protocol (IP)
 Layer 2: Ethernet Framing
 Layer 1: Ethernet Physical Network

TDC-425 Voice / Data Network Fundamentals 107

Network Architecture Models

TDC-425 Voice / Data Network Fundamentals 108

Network Architecture Models
 Connections
 Logical and physical connections - A logical
connection is one that exists only in the
software, while a physical connection is one that
exists in the hardware (and cables).

 KEY: Note that in a network architecture model,

only the lowest layer contains a physical
connection, while all higher layers contain logical
connections.

TDC-425 Voice / Data Network Fundamentals 109

Network Architecture Models
 Logical and physical connections

TDC-425 Voice / Data Network Fundamentals 110

TCP/IP Protocol Suite
 Dominant commercial protocol architecture
 Specified and extensively used before OSI
 Developed by research funded by U.S.
Department of Defense (DARPANET)
 Used by the Internet

TDC-425 Voice / Data Network Fundamentals 111

TCP/IP Suite Architecture

TDC-425 Voice / Data Network Fundamentals 112

Network Architecture Models
 Internet Model (5 layers)
 Application layer - equivalent to the OSI’s
presentation and application layers.
 Transport layer - performs same function as OSI
transport layer.
 Network layer - roughly equivalent to the OSI’s
network layer.
 Data Link layer - equivalent to the OSI’s data link
layer.
 Physical layer - equivalent to the OSI’s physical
layer.

TDC-425 Voice / Data Network Fundamentals 113

Peer-To-Peer Processes

TDC-425 Voice / Data Network Fundamentals 114

Network Architecture Models
 The Internet Model in Action
 Note the flow of data from user to web browser
and back.
 At each layer, information is either added or
removed, depending on whether the data is
leaving or arriving at a workstation.
 The adding of information over pre-existing
information is termed encapsulation.

TDC-425 Voice / Data Network Fundamentals 115

Network Architecture Models

TDC-425 Voice / Data Network Fundamentals 116

In-class Exercise (Chap. 1):
1. E10, p. 30.
2. E16, pp. 30-31
3. E17, p. 31
4. E18, p. 31
5. Use VoIP as an example to illustrate the
concept of “technological convergence”.

TDC-425 Voice / Data Network Fundamentals 117

In-class Exercise (Chap. 1):
6. The network device that connects a LAN to a
WAN is:
 Hub
 Bridge
 NIC (Network Interface Card)
 Router
 Repeater

TDC-425 Voice / Data Network Fundamentals 118

In-class Exercise (Chap. 1):
7. Which of the following measures the actual
usable data transfer rate over a medium?
 Bandwidth
 Output
 Throughput
 Goodput

TDC-425 Voice / Data Network Fundamentals 119

 In-class Exercise (Chap. 1):
8. Consider two hosts on a LAN transferring a file,
which of the following relationships is correct:
A. The bandwidth of the LAN = the throughput between the two
hosts > the actual rate of data received by the destination
computer.
B. The throughput between the two hosts> the bandwidth of the
LAN > the actual rate of data received by the destination
computer.
C. The bandwidth of the LAN > the throughput between the two
hosts > the actual rate of data received by the destination
computer.
D. The bandwidth of the LAN > the actual rate of data received by
the destination computer > the throughput between the two
hosts.
TDC-425 Voice / Data Network Fundamentals 120
Data and Signals (Chap. 2)
 Introduction
 Computer networks transmit signals.
 Signals are the electromagnetic encoding of data.
 Data and signals can be analog or digital. Vast
majority of signals today are digital (> 90%)

TDC-425 Voice / Data Network Fundamentals 121

Data and Signals

 Examples of data include:

 Human voice of a telephone conversation
 Computer files.
 Movie on a DVD.
 Music on a compact disc.
 Collection of samples from a blood gas analysis
device.

TDC-425 Voice / Data Network Fundamentals 122

Data and Signals (cont.)
 Examples of signals include:
 Telephone conversation over a telephone line.
 Live television news interview from Europe.
 Web page download over your telephone line via
the Internet.

TDC-425 Voice / Data Network Fundamentals 123

Data and Signals (cont.)
 Example of data vs. signal: Singing
 The lyrics contains message, which is the data.
 The melody of the song is the carrier.
 Singing the lyrics of the song according to the
melody of the song is like sending the signal
containing the data.
 When the listener hears the melody of the song,
understands the lyrics of the song, the data is
received.

TDC-425 Voice / Data Network Fundamentals 124

Data and Signals (cont.)

 Combinations of analog/digital data transmitted in

analog/digital signal:
A. Analog data transmitted in analog signal
B. Analog data transmitted in digital signal
C. Digital data transmitted in analog signal
D. Digital data transmitted in digital signal
Examples:
1) AM/FM radio, analog broadcast TV (non-existent)
telephone network
2) Data network: LAN
3) Modem, digital broadcast TV, DSL, Cable Modem
4) Telephone network
TDC-425 Voice / Data Network Fundamentals 125
 Introduction (continued)
Table 2-1 Four combinations of data and signals

126
Data and Signals (cont.)
 Analog versus Digital
 Analog is a continuous waveform, with examples
such as music and video.

TDC-425 Voice / Data Network Fundamentals 127

Data and Signals (cont.)
 Analog versus Digital (cont.)
 Digital is a discrete or non-continuous waveform
with fixed voltage levels that represent data as
either 1s and 0s. Also viewed as “on” or “off”.

TDC-425 Voice / Data Network Fundamentals 128

Data and Signals (cont.)
 Analog versus Digital (cont.)
 It is harder to separate noise from an analog
signal than it is to separate noise from a digital
signal.

TDC-425 Voice / Data Network Fundamentals 129

Data and Signals (cont.)
 Analog versus Digital (cont.)
 Noise in a digital signal. You can still discern a
high voltage from a low voltage. Regenerators
are devices that automatically amplify and clean
noise out of digital signals.

TDC-425 Voice / Data Network Fundamentals 130

Data and Signals (cont.)
 Analog versus Digital (cont.)
 Noise in a digital signal. Too much noise - you
cannot discern a high voltage from a low voltage.
Here data will be lost in transmission.

TDC-425 Voice / Data Network Fundamentals 131

Data and Signals (cont.)
 Signals have three components:
 Amplitude
 Frequency
 Phase

 Communicating Data
 Binary data (1s and 0s) are communicated by
changing one or more of these components
(amplitude, frequency, or phase) in predetermined
ways at predetermined time intervals.

TDC-425 Voice / Data Network Fundamentals 132

Data and Signals (cont.)
 Amplitude
 The amplitude of a signal is the height of the
wave above or below a given reference point.

TDC-425 Voice / Data Network Fundamentals 133

Data and Signals (cont.)
 Frequency
 The frequency is the number of times a signal
makes a complete cycle within a given time frame.
 Spectrum - The range of frequencies that a signal
spans from minimum to maximum.
 Bandwidth - The absolute value of the difference
between the lowest and highest frequencies of a
signal. (Different meaning than bps!)
 Attenuation - Loss of signal strength.

TDC-425 Voice / Data Network Fundamentals 134

 Data and Signals (cont.)
 Frequency (cont.)

Low Freq

Higher Freq

Highest Freq

TDC-425 Voice / Data Network Fundamentals 135

 US Frequency Allocation:
http://www.ntia.doc.gov/osmhome/allochrt.pdf

1.AM radio: 536 KHz to 1605 KHz

• AM780, AM670, AM1000, AM720
2.FM radio: 88.0 MHz to 108.0 MHz
• FM90.1, FM91.5, FM93.9, FM104.7
3.Broadcast TV Channel 2-4: 54.0 MHz to 72.0 MHz
4.Broadcast TV Channel 5-7: 76.0 MHz to 88.0 MHz
5.Broadcast TV Channel 8-13: 174.0 MHz to 216.0 MHz
6.Wireless Cellular band: 806 MHz – 941 MHz (850 MHz)
7.Wireless PCS band: 1710 MHz – 2180 MHz (1.9 GHz)
Data for AM/FM radio and broadcast TV: (analog, digital)?
Signal for AM/FM radio and broadcast TV: (analog, digital)

136 TDC-425 Voice / Data Network Fundamentals

Data and Signals (cont.)
 Phase
 The phase of a signal is the position of the
waveform relative to a given moment of time or
relative to time zero.

 A change in phase can be any number of angles

between 0 and 360 degrees.

 However, phase changes often occur on common

angles, such as 45, 90, 135, etc.

TDC-425 Voice / Data Network Fundamentals 137

Data and Signals (cont.)
 Phase (cont.)

TDC-425 Voice / Data Network Fundamentals 138

Data and Signals (cont.)
 (D) Converting Digital Data into Digital
Signals (when do we need this?)
 There are numerous techniques available to
convert digital data into digital signals.
 Let’s examine six techniques for digital
encoding:
 NRZ-L
 NRZ-I
 Manchester
 Differential Manchester
 Bi-Polar AMI
 4B/5B
TDC-425 Voice / Data Network Fundamentals 139
Data and Signals (cont.)
 Non-return to Zero Level (NRZ-L)
 A negative voltage is used to represent one binary
value.
 A positive voltage is used to represent another
binary value.
 No “standard” defines which voltage level
represents which binary value.
 Key: For class, we’ll use a negative voltage to
represent 1s, and a positive voltage to represent
0s.

TDC-425 Voice / Data Network Fundamentals 140

Data and Signals (cont.)
 NRZ-L (cont.)
 Example:
0 1 1 0 1 0 0 0 1 1 0 0 1 0

TDC-425 Voice / Data Network Fundamentals 141

Data and Signals (cont.)
 NRZ-L
 Ones and zeros are represented by opposite and

alternating high and low voltages and where there

is no return to a zero reference.
 Basically, it’s a two-voltage-level encoding scheme

with the voltage level not returning to the zero

reference.
 Figure 2-12 (a) on p. 46 is misleading.

TDC-425 Voice / Data Network Fundamentals 142

Data and Signals (cont.)

TDC-425 Voice / Data Network Fundamentals 143

Data and Signals (cont.)
NRZ-L
 Advantages of NRZ-L:
NRZ-L is simple to generate and inexpensive to
implement in hardware.

TDC-425 Voice / Data Network Fundamentals 144

Data and Signals (cont.)
NRZ-L
 Disadvantages of NRZ-L:
 The receiver needs to check the voltage level for each bit
to determine whether the bit is a 0 or a 1.
 The issue of long sequences of 0s produce a signal that
never changes. Often the receiver looks for signal changes
so that it can synchronize its reading of the data with the
actual data pattern. How can the receiver tell whether one
bit ends and the next bit begins if a long string of 0s is
transmitted and the signal does not change?
 The need for synchronization!
 Solution to NRZ-L synchronization problems?

TDC-425 Voice / Data Network Fundamentals 145

Data and Signals (cont.)
 NRZ-I
 1s and 0s are encoded by the presence or absence,
respectively, of a signal transition at the beginning of a
bit time.
 A transition (from low to high, or from high to low) at the
beginning of a bit time denotes a binary 1 for that bit time.
 No transition indicates a binary 0 for that bit time.

TDC-425 Voice / Data Network Fundamentals 146

Data and Signals (cont.)
 NRZ-I (cont.)
 Example:

0 1 1 0 1 0 0 0 1 1 0 0 1 0

 14 bits, how many voltage changes? _____

 The issue of a long sequence of 0’s?
 Is synchronization issue solved?
TDC-425 Voice / Data Network Fundamentals 147
Data and Signals (cont.)
 NRZ-I
 The concepts of NRZ-L and NRZ-I are very different.
 NRZ-I is a considered differential encoding as the signal
is decoded by comparing the polarity of adjacent signal
elements.
 NRZ-I is also called the transition coding – a transition
denotes a “one” and no transition denotes a “zero”.

TDC-425 Voice / Data Network Fundamentals 148

Data and Signals (cont.)
 NRZ-I: Advantages:
 One benefit of differential encoding is that if the polarity of
the leads are accidentally inverted, the decoded output will
remain the same.

TDC-425 Voice / Data Network Fundamentals 149

Data and Signals (cont.)
 Manchester coding:
The real solution to the synchronization
issue!

 A mid-bit transition occurs in the middle of every

bit period to provide synchronization.
 The mid-bit transition also indicates the binary
value being transmitted.
 A low to high transition represents a binary 1.
 A high to low transition represents a binary 0.

TDC-425 Voice / Data Network Fundamentals 150

Data and Signals (cont.)
 Manchester (cont.)
 Example:

0 1 1 0 1 0 0 0 1 1 0 0 1 0

TDC-425 Voice / Data Network Fundamentals 151

Data and Signals (cont.)
 Manchester (cont.)
 Advantages:
 Every transmitted bit causes a transition of voltage that
can be used for synchronization.
 Self-clocking!
 The absence of a mid-bit transition can be used to
detect errors, as noise on the line would have to invert
the signals on both sides of the mid-point to result in an
undetected error.

 Manchester encoding is used in most local area

networks for transmitting digital data over a LAN
cable.
TDC-425 Voice / Data Network Fundamentals 152
Data and Signals (cont.)
 Manchester (cont.)
 Disadvantages:
 Manchester codes often (not always) transmit two
signal changes per bit (2 bauds per bit). That is,
the baud rate is not equal to the bps.
So what?
 The hardware for Manchester coding must often work
twice as fast if the baud rate is twice the bps.
 Signals that change at a higher rate of speed are
more susceptible to noise and errors.

TDC-425 Voice / Data Network Fundamentals 153

Data and Signals (cont.)
 Differential Manchester Code
 A mid-bit transition occurs in the middle of every
bit period to provide synchronization.
 The mid-bit transition does not identify the
binary value being transmitted.
 A transition at the beginning of a bit period
indicates a binary 0.
 The absence of a transition at the beginning of
a bit-period indicates a binary 1.

TDC-425 Voice / Data Network Fundamentals 154

Data and Signals (cont.)
 Differential Manchester Code (cont.)
 Example:
0 1 1 0 1 0 0 0 1 1 0 0 1 0

TDC-425 Voice / Data Network Fundamentals 155

Data and Signals (cont.)
 Differential Manchester Code (cont.)
 Advantages:
 Every transmitted bit causes a transition of voltage that
can be used for synchronization.
 The absence of a mid-bit transition can be used to detect
errors, as noise on the line would have to invert the
signals on both sides of the mid-point to result in an
undetected error.

TDC-425 Voice / Data Network Fundamentals 156

Data and Signals (cont.)
 Differential Manchester Code (cont.)
 Disadvantages:
 Differential Manchester codes always transmit two
signal changes per bit (2 bauds per bit). That is,
the baud rate is twice of the bps.
So what?
 The hardware for Manchester coding must work twice as
fast if the baud rate is twice the bps. A given transmission
medium has a maximum baud capacity it can support.
 Signals that change at a higher rate of speed are
more susceptible to noise and errors.

TDC-425 Voice / Data Network Fundamentals 157

Data and Signals (cont.)
 Bi-polar AMI
 A binary 0 is represented by no line signal.
 Alternating positive and negative pulses
represents binary 1s.
 There is no loss of synchronization during a long
string of 1s.
 If too many 0s are transmitted in several frames,
synchronization can be lost. A technique known as
“Ones (1s) Density” is implemented to prevent
loss of synchronization, and is discussed later.
 There is no net DC component on the line since the
1s signal’s alternate in voltage from positive to
negative.
TDC-425 Voice / Data Network Fundamentals 158
Data and Signals (cont.)
 Bi-polar AMI (cont.)
 Example:

0 1 1 0 1 0 0 0 1 1 0 0 1 0

TDC-425 Voice / Data Network Fundamentals 159

Data and Signals: Encoding Comparisons

TDC-425 Voice / Data Network Fundamentals 160

Data and Signals (cont.)
 Self-Clocking Codes
 Why do we care about self-clocking codes?
 Transmitter / receiver clocks are not perfectly
synchronized to tick at the same rate (too expensive).
 NRZ-L or NRZ-I cannot be used at high data rates or
long distances unless a separate clock signal is sent on
another wire.
 Manchester codes can be used at high data rates or long
distances, because the receiver continuously gets
feedback on the sender’s clock rate.

TDC-425 Voice / Data Network Fundamentals 161

Data and Signals (cont.)
 Self-Clocking Codes (cont.)
 Any disadvantage to Manchester codes?
 Manchester codes must transmit two signal changes per
bit (~ 2 baud per bit).
 NRZ codes transmit only one signal change per bit (1
baud per bit).
 Any transmission medium (copper wire, fiber optics, etc.)
has a maximum baud capacity that it can support. NRZ
can send more bits per second.

TDC-425 Voice / Data Network Fundamentals 162

Data and Signals (cont.)
 4B/5B Digital Encoding
 Yet another encoding technique that converts four bits of
data into five-bit quantities.
 The five-bit quantities are unique in that no five-bit code has
more than 2 consecutive zeroes.
 The five-bit code is then transmitted using an NRZ-I
encoded signal.
 This system is self-clocking, yet provides 4 bits for every 5
signal changes (more efficient than Manchester coding).
 Why is 4B/5B self-clocking?

 Answer: Because there are specific codes that indicate

the start and stop of data stream (p. 290 of Ref. 1 on slide
38).

TDC-425 Voice / Data Network Fundamentals 163

Data and Signals (cont.)
 4B/5B Digital Encoding (cont.)

TDC-425 Voice / Data Network Fundamentals 164

Data and Signals (cont.)
(C) Converting Digital Data into Analog
Signals (When do we need this?)
 Three basic techniques:
 Amplitude modulation
 Frequency modulation
 Phase modulation

TDC-425 Voice / Data Network Fundamentals 165

Data and Signals (cont.)
 Amplitude Modulation
 One amplitude encodes a 0 while another
amplitude encodes a 1.

TDC-425 Voice / Data Network Fundamentals 166

Data and Signals (cont.)
 Amplitude Modulation
 Some systems use multiple amplitudes.

TDC-425 Voice / Data Network Fundamentals 167

Data and Signals (cont.)
 Frequency Modulation
 One frequency encodes a 0, while another
frequency encodes a 1.

TDC-425 Voice / Data Network Fundamentals 168

Data and Signals (cont.)
 Phase Modulation
 One phase change encodes a 0, while another
phase change encodes a 1.

TDC-425 Voice / Data Network Fundamentals 169

Data and Signals (cont.)
 Quadrature Phase Modulation
 Four different phase angles are used:
 45 degrees
 135 degrees
 225 degrees
 315 degrees

TDC-425 Voice / Data Network Fundamentals 170

Data and Signals (cont.)
 Quadrature Phase Modulation (cont.)

TDC-425 Voice / Data Network Fundamentals 171

Data and Signals (cont.)
 Quadrature Phase Modulation (cont.)

TDC-425 Voice / Data Network Fundamentals 172

Data and Signals (cont.)
 Quadrature Phase Modulation (cont.)

 In this technology, 12 different phases are

combined with two different amplitudes.
 Since only 4 phase angles have 2 different
amplitudes, there are a total of 16 combinations.
 With 16 signal combinations, each baud equals 4
bits of information. (2 to the 4th power = 16)

TDC-425 Voice / Data Network Fundamentals 173

Data and Signals (cont.)
 (B) Converting Analog Data into Digital
Signals
 To convert analog data into a digital signal, there
are two basic techniques:
 Pulse code modulation
 Delta modulation

 Generic names for devices that convert

analog to digital: codecs (coder/decoder);
vocoders (voice only)

TDC-425 Voice / Data Network Fundamentals 174

Data and Signals (cont.)
 Pulse Code Modulation
 The analog waveform is sampled at specific
intervals and the “snapshots” are converted to
binary values.

TDC-425 Voice / Data Network Fundamentals 175

Data and Signals (cont.)
 Pulse Code Modulation (cont.)
 When the binary values are later converted to an
analog signal, a waveform similar to the original
result is created, as long as enough samples are
taken.

TDC-425 Voice / Data Network Fundamentals 176

 Data and Signals (cont.)
 Pulse Code Modulation (cont.)
 The more snapshots taken in the same amount of
time, the better the resolution.

TDC-425 Voice / Data Network Fundamentals 177

Data and Signals (cont.)
 (A) Converting Analog Data into Analog Signals
(When do we need this?)
 Many times it is necessary to modulate analog data onto a
different set of analog frequencies. Broadcast radio and
television are two very common examples of this.

 In this situation a data signal (information) is modulated by a

carrier signal to produce a composite signal that can be
broadcast in a particular range of frequencies near the carrier
frequency. For example: music (analog data signal) is
modulated by a 91.5 MHz sine wave, which produces a
composite signal with components between 91.4 MHz and 91.6
MHz. This is transmitted. You retrieve the original signal by
demodulating (tuning into) frequency 91.5 MHz on your radio
to re-obtain back the music.
TDC-425 Voice / Data Network Fundamentals 178
Data and Signals (cont.)

TDC-425 Voice / Data Network Fundamentals 179

Data and Signals (cont.)
 Data Codeset
 The set of all textual characters or symbols and their
corresponding binary patterns is called a data code.

 There are two basic data code sets plus a third code set that
has interesting characteristics:
 ASCII (American Standard Code For Information Interchange)
is the most common format for text files in computers and on
the Internet. In an ASCII file, each alphabetic, numeric, or
special character is represented with a 7-bit binary number (a
string of seven 0s or 1s). 128 possible characters are defined.
 EBCDIC: a binary code for alphabetic and numeric characters
that IBM developed for its larger operating systems
 Baudot Code

TDC-425 Voice / Data Network Fundamentals 180

Data and Signals (cont.)
 ASCII

TDC-425 Voice / Data Network Fundamentals 181

Data and Signals (cont.)
 EBCDIC

TDC-425 Voice / Data Network Fundamentals 182

Data and Signals (cont.)
 Baudot

TDC-425 Voice / Data Network Fundamentals 183

Data and Signals (cont.)
 Data and Signal Conversions in Action
 Let us transmit the e-=mail message “Sam, what
time is the meeting with accounting? Hannah.”
 This message first leaves Hannah’s workstation
and travels across a local area network.

TDC-425 Voice / Data Network Fundamentals 184

Data and Signals (cont.)
 Data and Signal Conversions in Action (cont.)

TDC-425 Voice / Data Network Fundamentals 185

Data and Signals (cont.)
 Data and Signal Conversions in Action (cont.)

TDC-425 Voice / Data Network Fundamentals 186

In-class exercises (Chap. 2):
1. Convert the digital data of “101000111110” into
digital signals using:
a) NRZ-L
b) NRZ-I
c) Manchester
d) Differential Manchester
e) Bi-Polar AMI
f) 4B/5B

2. What is a self-clocking code? What is the

advantage of a self-clocking code over a non-
self-clocking code?
TDC-425 Voice / Data Network Fundamentals 187
In-class exercises (Chap. 2):
3. Comparing Manchester codes and NRZ
codes, which can send more bits per second
for a given transmission medium? Why?
4. Why is 4B/5B more efficient than
Manchester coding?
5. Why is 4B/5B self-clocking?
6. Why is it important for 4B/5B to have no
more than 2 consecutive zeros?
7. How to improve the accuracy of pulse-
coded-modulation (PCM)?
TDC-425 Voice / Data Network Fundamentals 188
In-class exercises (Chap. 2):
8. What are the two inherent problems of delta
modulation?
9. What’s the relationship between frequency
and bits per second?
10. The 4B/5B codes is built upon:
a) NRZ-L
b) NRZ-I
c) Manchester
d) Differential Manchester
e) Bipolar-AMI

TDC-425 Voice / Data Network Fundamentals 189

 T2, p. 31

Take an example from your work or school in which a person

requests a service.

Does the request pass through any layers before it reaches

the intended recipient?

Do logical connections as well as physical connections exist?

If so, show them in the diagram.

TDC-425 Voice / Data Network Fundamentals 190

Transport Layer – Example

TDC-425 Voice / Data Network Fundamentals 191

Customer testing issue reporting process
Customer
Tester
ǁ

Systems
Engineer
ǁ
Supplier
Team

TDC-425 Voice / Data Network Fundamentals 192

Customer IOT testing issue reporting
process
Customer Vendor-2
Tester Tester
^ ǁ
||
Developer
ǁ
Systems Systems
Engineer Engineer
^ ǁ
|| Customer
Supplier Team
Team
TDC-425 Voice / Data Network Fundamentals 193
Bipolar Violation for built-in Error Detection:
AMI: Alternate Mark Inversion – between +3V and
-3V for 1’s.

TDC464 Week 2, Ch DePaul University

6, Ch 15 Ramteke CDM
Ch 4, Ch 5, Ch 20 194 Winter 2009-2010
 Prevent clock drifting: B8ZS line coding
Sending a bunch of consecutive zeros may be
misinterpreted in terms of the number of zeros actually transmitted.
Therefore every 8 consecutive zeros is substituted by a special pattern.
(B8ZS = Binary 8 Zero Substitution = Ones (1s) Density rule)

TDC464 Week 2, Ch DePaul University

6, Ch 15 Ramteke CDM
Ch 4, Ch 5, Ch 20 195 Winter 2009-2010
 AMI and B8ZS Signal

1 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 1
Sender

T1 sent

T1 recv

Receiver

TDC464 Week 2, Ch Figure 15.6

DePaul University
6, Ch 15 Ramteke CDM
Ch 4, Ch 5, Ch 20 196 Winter 2009-2010