Avionics

32357
- Unit IV: Electronic Flight Instrument System
- Deepak Gaur
- Assistant Professor
- MVJCE
Contents
• Display Units
• Presentation, failure and annunciation
• Display of air data
The Electromechanical Instrumented Flight Deck

Includes:

Magnetic Compass

Tachometer

Fuel Gauge

Oil Pressure

Clock

Turn and slip indicator
Piston Engine Aircraft – Primary Flight Instruments/Basic Six Configuration
Includes:

Gyro artificial horizon top centre

Airspeed top left

Vertical Speed top right

Direction Indicator bottom centre

Altimeter bottom right

Turn and Bank Indicator bottom left

Gyro Artificial Horizon - Is an instrument used in an aircraft to inform
the pilot of the orientation of the aircraft relative to Earth's horizon. It
indicates pitch and bank and is a primary instrument for flight.

Airspeed indicator - It is an instrument used in an aircraft to display the
craft's airspeed, typically in knots, to the pilot.

Vertical Speed Indicator – It is one of the flight instruments in an
aircraft used to inform the pilot of the rate of descent or climb. Unit –
feet/min.

Direction Indicator – It is a compass that assists an airplane pilot in
flying a predetermined course by direct reading and comparison of two
indicators one of which is set for the desired heading while the other
shows the actual heading so that when the two indicators point alike
the airplane is flying the desired course.

Altimeter – It is an instrument for determining altitude
attained, especially a barometric or radar device fitted in
an aircraft.

Turn and bank Indicator – It is an airplane instrument
that coordinates the rate of turn with the degree of bank
to help the pilot avoid a slip or skid
 Basic T Configuration

The primary flight instruments had evolved considerably.

The arrangement of the instrument cluster had matured
from the ‘basic six’ configuration to the ‘basic T’ now
universally adopted on all electro-mechanically
instrumented civil transport aircraft operating today.

Airspeed Indicator - It is an instrument used in an
aircraft to display the craft's airspeed, typically in knots,
to the pilot.

Attitude Direction Indicator - The attitude indicator
(also known as an artificial horizon) shows the aircraft's
relation to the horizon. From this the pilot can tell
whether the wings are level (roll) and if the aircraft nose
is pointing above or below the horizon (pitch).This is a
primary instrument for instrument flight and is also useful
in conditions of poor visibility.

Altimeter – It is an instrument for determining altitude
attained, especially a barometric or radar device fitted in
an aircraft

Vertical Speed Indicator – It is one of the flight instruments
in an aircraft used to inform the pilot of the rate of descent or
climb. Unit – feet/min.

Horizontal Situation Indicator - It is an aircraft flight
instrument normally mounted below the artificial horizon in
place of a conventional heading indicator. It combines a
heading indicator with a VHF omni-directional range-
instrument landing system (VOR-ILS) display.

Radio Magnetic Indicator - The RMI is a navigational aid
providing aircraft magnetic or directional gyro heading and
very high frequency omnidirectional range (VOR), GPS, and
automatic direction finder (ADF) bearing information. Remote
indicating compasses were developed to compensate for
errors in and limitations of older types of heading indicators.
 Airspeed Indicator

Attitude Direction Indicator

Altimeter
Display Systems
Flight deck instruments/displays can be categorized into
three types:

Primary flight instruments providing information on the
ability of the aircraft to sustain safe and controlled flight.

Navigation instruments providing information about the
aircraft position with respect to its surroundings in order for
the aircraft to be safely directed from its point of origin to its
destination.

Engine instruments and systems providing information
about the aircraft systems to assure the continued safe
function of the aircraft for the duration of the intended flight.
 Electronic Flight Instrument
System(EFIS)/HDD

An electronic flight instrument system
(EFIS) is a flight deck instrument display
system that displays flight data
electronically rather than
electromechanically.

An EFIS normally consists of a primary
flight display (PFD), multi-function display
(MFD), and an engine indicating and crew
alerting system (EICAS) display.
EFIS Architecture
Typical EFIS Architecture
1. Data collector/concentrator which
(a) Acquires the data to be displayed from the other on-board systems,
(b) Selects the most appropriate data sources,
(c) Performs data integrity checks.
2. Display management processor which
(d) Determines the display mode, submode, and elements to be displayed,
(e) Translates the above information into graphics data and commands.
3. Symbol/graphics generator which
(f) constructs the symbology and graphics comprising: alpha-numeric characters in a range of
font styles and sizes, special symbols, pointers, and icons, lines of various widths and styles,
circles, ellipses, and arcs of various widths and styles, area shade infill.
4. Display unit which comprises
(g) The display device itself ,
(h) Display device electronic support circuits
 Primary Flight Display

The display unit that replaces the ADI
is called the primary flight display
(PFD).

If a separate display replaces the
HSI, it is called the navigation display.

The PFD displays all information
critical to flight, including calibrated
airspeed, altitude, heading, attitude,
vertical speed and yaw.

The PFD is designed to improve a pilot's situational awareness by
integrating this information into a single display instead of six
different analog instruments, reducing the amount of time necessary
to monitor the instruments.

PFDs also increase situational awareness by alerting the aircrew to
unusual or potentially hazardous conditions — for example, low
airspeed, high rate of descent — by changing the color or shape of
the display or by providing audio alerts.
 Multi Function Display

The MFD (multi-function display) displays
navigational and weather information from
multiple systems.

MFDs are most frequently designed as "chart-
centric", where the aircrew can overlay different
information over a map or chart.

Examples of MFD overlay information include
the aircraft's current route plan, weather
information from either on-board radar or
lightning detection sensors or ground-based
sensors.

The MFD can also be used to view other non-overlay type
of data (e.g., current route plan) and calculated overlay-
type data, e.g., the glide radius of the aircraft, given current
location over terrain, winds, and aircraft speed and altitude.

MFDs can also display information about aircraft systems,
such as fuel and electrical systems.

As with the PFD, the MFD can change the color or shape of
the data to alert the aircrew to hazardous situations.
Engine Indications and Crew Alerting System (EICAS) /
Electronic Centralized Aircraft Monitoring (ECAM)

It displays information about the aircraft's systems, including its
fuel, electrical and propulsion systems (engines).

EICAS improves situational awareness by allowing the aircrew
to view complex information in a graphical format and also by
alerting the crew to unusual or hazardous situations.

For example, if an engine begins to lose oil pressure, the
EICAS might sound an alert, switch the display to the page with
the oil system information and outline the low oil pressure data
with a red box.
Color Codes for EFIS system
• MAGENTA The color used for an aim, the aircraft has to reach.
For example the speed on top of the speed-strip at the left, the
selected altitude at the right or the two bars in the middle, the
flight director, which guides the plane how to fly, simplified said.
• GREEN Every variable that is set to a specific value, is
displayed in green. For example on the left, the numerous
numbers at the speed strip, are v-speeds for flaps, gear, rotation
and so on. Or also the BARO, which shows the selected QNH.
On-side   approach   and   navigation data, On-side commanded
data, Selected active route/flight plan.
• WHITE Things in white is just information. Like at the bottom
right, there is only a reference to the standard QNH or at the
bottom center of the artificial horizon you can see the radar
altitude (RA). Scales and associated figures, Held DME distance
display
• RED Red is as always the warning color. In this
picture this is the two red, dotted lines at the top and
bottom of the speed-stripe. They indicate minimum
and maximum airspeed. Or the big PULL UP
message, saying the pilot he has to pull up the plane
because of immediate danger of terrain or an
excessive sink-rate.
• Yellow Cautions or abnormal source, Cross-side
navigation data, Cross-side commanded data,
Cross-side selected active route/flight plan.
• Cyan On-side non-approach navigation data (LNAV)
• Orange Selected heading/DME HOLD annunciation
Introduction – Cockpit Display System
The cockpit display systems provide a visual presentation of the
information and data from the aircraft sensors and systems to the pilot
(and crew) to enable the pilot to fly the aircraft safely and carry out the
mission. They are thus vital to the operation of any aircraft as they
provide the pilot, whether civil or military, with:
• Primary flight information,
• Navigation information,
• Engine data,
• Airframe data,
• Warning information.
The military pilot has also a wide array of additional information to
view, such as:
• Infrared imaging sensors,
• Radar,
• Tactical mission data,
• Weapon aiming,
• Threat warnings.
The pilot is able to rapidly absorb and process substantial amounts of
visual information but it is clear that the information must be displayed
in a way which can be readily assimilated, and unnecessary information
must be eliminated to ease the pilot’s task in high work load situations.
A number of developments have taken place to improve the pilot–display
interaction and this is a continuing activity as new technology and components
become available. Examples of these developments are:
• Head up displays,
• Helmet mounted displays,
• Multi-function color displays,
• Digitally generated color moving map displays,
• Synthetic pictorial imagery,
• Displays management using intelligent knowledge based system (IKBS)
technology,
• Improved understanding of human factors and involvement of human factors
specialists from the initial cockpit design stage.
1. Head Up Displays
• A head up display basically projects a collimated display in the pilot’s
head up forward line of sight so that he can view both the display
information and the outside world scene at the same time.
• The pilot is thus able to observe both distant outside world objects
and display data at the same time without having to change the
direction of gaze or refocus the eyes.
• The advantages of head up presentation of essential flight data such as the
artificial horizon, pitch angle, bank angle, flight path vector, height, airspeed
and heading.
• The pilot is thus free to concentrate on the outside world during maneuvers
and does not need to look down at the cockpit instruments or head down
displays.
• In combat situations, it is essential for survival that the pilot is head up and
scanning for possible threats from any direction. The very high accuracy which
can be achieved by a HUD and computerized weapon aiming system together
with the ability to remain head up in combat have made the HUD an essential
system on all modern combat aircraft.
• HUDs are now being installed in civil aircraft for reasons such as:
Inherent advantages of head-up presentation of primary flight information
To display automatic landing guidance to enable the pilot to land the aircraft
safely in conditions of very low visibility due to fog, as a back up and monitor
for the automatic landing system. The display of taxi-way guidance is also being
considered.
Basic Principle
• The pilot views the outside world
through the HUD combiner glass (and
windscreen).
• The combiner glass is effectively a ‘see
through’ mirror with a high optical
transmission efficiency so that there is
little loss of visibility looking through
the combiner and windscreen.
• It is called a combiner as it optically
combines the collimated display
symbology with the outside world
scene viewed through it.
Civil HUD Architecture
Civil HUD optical configuration
• The display symbology generated from the aircraft sensors and
systems (such as the INS and air data system) is displayed on the
surface of a cathode ray tube (CRT).
• The display images are then relayed through a relay lens system which
magnifies the display and corrects for some of the optical errors
which are otherwise present in the system.
• The relayed display images are then reflected through an angle of
near 90◦ by the fold mirror and thence to the collimating lens which
collimates the display images which are then reflected from the
combiner glass into the pilot’s forward field of view.
• The virtual images of the display symbology appear to the pilot to be
at infinity and overlay the distant world scene, as they are collimated.
• The function of the fold mirror is to enable a compact optical
configuration to be achieved so that the HUD occupies the minimum
possible space in the cockpit.
Advantages of HUD in Civil Aircraft
• Increased safety by providing a better situational awareness for the
pilot to control the aircraft by the head up presentation of the
primary flight information.
• The HUD can also provide a flight path director display which allows
for the effect of wind shear from a knowledge of the aircraft’s velocity
vector, airspeed, height and aerodynamic behavior.
• The HUD can also increase safety during terrain, or traffic avoidance
maneuvers.
• Ground proximity Warning Systems (GPWS), Traffic Collision
Avoidance Systems (TCAS) data displayed on HUD increases safety.
• HUD used for displaying taxiway guidance helping aircraft during
landing, during night time and harsh weather conditions.
• HUD is used to monitor the automatic landing system.
• Display of conformal (contact analogue) information overlaid on the
real world.
• Flight parameter data presented in a relatively small field of view,
which improves data cross-checking.
• Improved situational awareness, especially in wind shear and
terrain/traffic avoidance maneuvers.
2. Helmet Mounted Display
• The advantages of head-up visual presentation of flight and
mission data by means of a collimated display.
• The HUD, however, only presents the information in the pilot’s
forward field of view, which even with a wide Field of View (FOV)
HUD is limited to about 30◦ in azimuth and 20◦ to 25◦ in elevation.
• Significant increases in this FOV are not practicable because of
the cockpit geometry constraints.
• The pilot requires visual information head up when he is looking in
any direction and this requirement can only be met by a helmet
mounted display (HMD).
Comparison b/w HUD and HMD FOV
• HMD can comprise a simple helmet mounted sighting system
which displays a collimated aiming cross or circle and some
simple alphanumeric information, with a typical FOV of around
5◦.
• An addressable LED matrix array is generally used as the
display source, enabling a very light weight and compact HMD
to be achieved. The helmet mounted sight enables targets to
be attacked at large off-boresight angles.
• In its most sophisticated form the HMD can provide, in effect,
a ‘HUD on the helmet’.
• This can display all the information to the pilot which is
normally shown on a HUD but with the pilot able to look in any
direction (attitude information is referenced to his line of sight
(LOS)).
• The HMD can also have a wider FOV ranging from 35◦ to 40◦
for a fighter aircraft application to over 50◦ for a helicopter
application.
• It should be appreciated that the FOV moves with the head,
unlike the HUD, and a larger FOV reduces scanning head
movement in an HM display.
• The HMD also enables a very effective night/poor visibility
viewing system to be achieved by displaying the TV picture
from a gimballed infrared sensor unit which is slaved to follow
the pilot’s line of sight.
• The pilot’s LOS with respect to the airframe is measured by a
head position sensing system.
Helicopter HMD
Eurofighter Typhoon binocular visor projected HMD
Failure and Annunciation

i. Annunciator Panel
ii. Warning lights
iii. Aural Warning
a. Ground Proximity Warning System (GPWS) or EGPWS
b. Traffic Collision and Avoidance System (TCAS)
iv. Engine-indicating and crew-alerting system (EICAS) or ECAM
 Annunciator Panel
• An annunciator panel, aka
the Centralized Warning Panel (CWP), is
a group of lights used as a central
indicator of status of equipment or
systems in an aircraft, industrial process,
building or other installation.
• Usually, the annunciator panel includes a
main warning lamp or audible signal to
draw the attention of operating personnel
to the annunciator panel for abnormal
events or conditions.
• In the aircraft industry, annunciator panels are groupings of annunciator
lights that indicate status of the aircraft's subsystems.
• The lights are usually accompanied with a test switch, which when pressed
illuminates all the lights to confirm they are in working order.
• More advanced modern aircraft replaces these with the integrated
electronic Engine Indicating and Crew Alerting System or Electronic
Centralised Aircraft Monitor.
Warning Lights
• An aviation annunciator panel will have a test switch to check for burned out
lamps. Indicator lights are grouped together by their associated systems into
various panels of lights.
• Lamp colours are normally given the following meanings:
• Red: Warning, this systems condition is critical and requires immediate
attention (such as an engine fire, hydraulic pump failure)
• Amber: Caution, this system requires timely attention or may do so in the
future (ice detected, fuel imbalance)
• Green: Advisory/Indication, a system is in use or ready for operation (such
as landing gear down and locked, APU operating)
• White/blue: Advisory/Indication, a system is in use (seatbelt signs on, anti-ice
system in-use, landing lights on)
Aural Warnings
Cockpit aural warnings include:
• The fire bell, take-off configuration warning, cabin altitude, landing
gear configuration warning, mach/airspeed overspeed, stall
warning, GPWS and TCAS.
• Radio Altimeter Callouts
• Automatic rad-alt calls can include any of the following:
• 2500 ("Twenty Five Hundred" or "Radio Altimeter"). 1000 500 400
300 200 100 50 40 30 20 10
• "Minimums" or "Minimums, Minimums" "Plus Hundred" when 100ft
above DH "Approaching Minimums" when 80ft above DH
"Approaching Decision Height" "Decision Height"
Ground Proximity Warning System
(GPWS)
• It is a system designed to alert pilots if their aircraft is in immediate danger of flying into the
ground or an obstacle.
• The modes are:
• Excessive terrain closure rate ("TERRAIN" "PULL UP")
• Altitude loss after take off or with a high power setting ("DON'T SINK")
• Unsafe terrain clearance ("TOO LOW – TERRAIN" "TOO LOW – GEAR"
"TOO LOW – FLAPS")
• Excessive deviation below glideslope ("GLIDESLOPE")
• Excessively steep bank angle ("BANK ANGLE")
• Windshear protection ("WINDSHEAR")
 
Traffic Collision and Avoidance System (TCAS)

• Various versions of TCAS have been fitted to the 737 since its introduction in the
1990's.
• The early days of TCAS there were different methods of displaying the visuals.
• For the Honeywell system their most popular method for non-EFIS airplanes was
to install an RA/VSI which was a mechanical VSI that had the "eyebrows" on the
outer edge directing the pilot to climb (green) or stay away from (red) and use the
separate Radar Indicator for the basic traffic display.
• Even early EFIS aircraft had the RA/VSI
• TCAS is now integrated at production into the EFIS displays.
• The PFD/EADI will display advisories to climb, descend, or stay level since they
give the vertical cue to the pilot.
• The ND/EHSI provides the map view looking down to show targets and their relative
altitude and vertical movement relative to your aircraft.
 Display of Air Data
• Air data, as the name suggests, involve the sensing of
the medium through which the aircraft is flying.
• Typical sensed parameters are dynamic pressure, static
pressure, rate of change in pressure, and temperature.
• Derived data include barometric altitude (ALT), indicated
airspeed (IAS), vertical speed (VS), Mach (M), Total Air
Temperature (TAT), and True AirSpeed (TAS) and Static
Air Temperature (SAT).
• The simplest system provides ALT and IAS as a
minimum, but modern jet aircraft require Mach, VS,
maximum operating speed, Vmo, maximum operating
Mach, Mmo, SAT, TAT, and TAS to satisfy the aircraft
requirements.
• To avoid errors when the aircraft yaws and errors due to
changes in the aircraft angle of attack, static ports are
located on both sides of the aircraft. There is inevitably
some error associated with the less than ideal positioning
of the static ports this is known as ‘static source error’
• The evolution of the high-performance commercial and business jet
aircraft of today, together with an increase in traffic on congested routes,
has significantly influenced the design of the air data system in the
following ways:
• By extending the dynamic range of the sensors involved with higher
altitudes, higher airspeeds, and greater temperatures.
• By increasing the use of air data on-board the aircraft, not just for
navigation but for engine control, flight control, and a whole range of other
aircraft subsystems.
• The adoption of higher cruise altitudes has introduced a more severe
environment for equipment located outside the pressurized cabin.
• Increasing complexity, density, and functional requirements have also led
to more complexity within the cabin.
• Demand for reduced vertical separation minima requires higher accuracy
of height sensing and methods of maintaining height within strict limits.
• Temperature sensing involves positioning a probe in the airflow and
sensing the change in resistance associated with temperature.
• Use of Pitot and Static Ports • Typical Mechanical Altimeter Display
• By using the capsule arrangement shown, Total pressure is fed into the capsule while
static pressure is fed into the case surrounding the capsule. The difference between these
two parameters, represented by the deflection of the capsule, represents the aircraft
airspeed. This permits airspeed to be measured.
• In the centre capsule configuration, static pressure is fed into the case of the instrument
while the capsule itself is sealed.
• Here, capsule deflection is proportional to changes in static pressure and therefore aircraft
altitude.
• This allows aircraft barometric altitude to be measured.
• In the arrangement shown in the right of the figure, static pressure is fed into the capsule.
It is also fed via a calibrated orifice into the sealed case surrounding the capsule. In this
situation the capsule deflection is proportional to the rate of change in altitude. This
permits the aircraft rate of ascent or descent to be measured.
• Determination of altitude from pressure measurements is based upon a standard
atmosphere in which pressure, density, and temperature are functions of altitude.
• As aircraft systems became more complex and more sophisticated propulsion and flight
control laws were adopted, the number of systems that required air data increased.
• Therefore, the provision of air data in various aircraft navigation, flight control, and other
subsystems required a more integrated approach.
• The computation tasks involved the following:
• Conversion of the sensed parameters into a more useful form.
• Combination of two or more parameters to obtain a third parameter.
• To correct for known errors as far as possible.
• This led to the introduction of one or more Air Data Computers (ADCs), which centrally
measured air data and provided corrected data to the recipient subsystems.
• Initially, air data was provided to different systems by analogue signalling means, but with the
evolution of digital data buses in the late 1970s, data were provided to the aircraft
subsystems by this means, notably by the use of standard ARINC 429 data buses.
• The most effective combination of ADCs is the Triple Air Data System (TADS) which allows a
majority voting technique to be used to isolate failures and use the best available information.
• Air Data Computer • Deviation of Airspeed
Parameters
 Typical air data module
(Honeywell)
• The advent of digital computing and digital
data buses such as ARINC 429 meant that
computation of the various air data
parameters could be accomplished in Air
Data Modules (ADMs) closer to the pitot –
static sensing points.
• Widespread use of the ARINC 429 data
buses enabled these data to be rapidly
disseminated throughout all the necessary
aircraft systems.
• Virtually all civil transport aircraft designed
within the last 15 years or so have adopted
the air data module implementation.
Air Data Inertial Reference Unit (ADIRU)
• ADIRU supplies air data (airspeed, angle of attack and altitude) and inertial
reference (position and attitude) information to the pilots' electronic flight instrument
system displays as well as other systems on the aircraft such as the engines,
autopilot, aircraft flight control system and landing gear systems.
• An ADIRU acts as a single, fault tolerant source of navigational data for both pilots of
an aircraft.
• It may be complemented by a secondary attitude air data reference unit (SAARU), as
in the Boeing 777 design.
• This device is used on various military aircraft as well as civilian airliners starting with
the Airbus A320 and Boeing 777.
Fire Protection System
• Typical zones on aircraft that have a fixed fire detection
and/or fire extinguisher system are:
1. Engines and auxiliary power unit (APU)
2. Cargo and baggage compartments
3. Lavatories on transport aircraft
4. Electronic bays
5. Wheel wells
6. Bleed air ducts
Fire Detectors – Small Aircraft
 To detect fires or overheat conditions, detectors are
placed in the various zones to be monitored.
 Fires are detected in reciprocating engine and small
turboprop aircraft using one or more of the following:
• Overheat detectors
• Rate-of-temperature-rise detectors
• Flame detectors
• Observation by crewmembers
Fire Detectors – Large Aircraft
• The complete aircraft fire protection systems of most large turbine-engine
aircraft incorporate several of these different detection methods.
• Rate-of-temperature-rise detectors
• Radiation sensing detectors
• Smoke detectors
• Overheat detectors
• Carbon monoxide detectors
• Combustible mixture detectors
• Optical detectors
• Observation of crew or passengers
• The types of detectors most commonly used for fast detection of fires are
the rate-of-rise, optical sensor, pneumatic loop, and electric resistance
systems.
Classes of Fires
• Class A—fires involving ordinary combustible materials, such
as wood, cloth, paper, rubber, and plastics.
• Class B—fires involving flammable liquids, petroleum oils,
greases, tars, oil-based paints, lacquers, solvents, alcohols,
and flammable gases.
• Class C—fires involving energized electrical equipment in
which the use of an extinguishing media that is electrically
nonconductive is important.
• Class D—fires involving combustible metals, such as
magnesium, titanium, zirconium, sodium, lithium, and
potassium.
Requirements for Overheat and Fire
Protection Systems
 Fire protection systems on current-production aircraft do not rely on
observation by crew members as a primary method of fire detection.
 An ideal fire detector system includes as many of the following features as
possible:
• No false warnings under any flight or ground condition.
• Rapid indication of a fire and accurate location of the fire.
• Accurate indication that a fire is out.
• Indication that a fire has re-ignited.
• Continuous indication for duration of a fire.
• Means for electrically testing the detector system from the aircraft cockpit.
• Resists damage from exposure to oil, water, vibration, extreme temperatures, or handling.
• Light in weight and easily adaptable to any mounting position.
• Circuitry that operates directly from the aircraft power system without inverters.
• Minimum electrical current requirements when not indicating a fire.
• Cockpit light that illuminates, indicating the location of the fire, and with an audible alarm system.