Revised Edition: 2016

ISBN 978-1-283-50518-5

© All rights reserved.

Published by:
White Word Publications
48 West 48 Street, Suite 1116,
New York, NY 10036, United States
Email: info@wtbooks.com
 Table of Contents
Chapter 1 - Flight Instruments

Chapter 2 - Flight Control Modes (Electronic)

Chapter 3 - Variometer & Machmeter

Chapter 4 - Attitude Indicator & Heading Indicator

Chapter 5 - Turn Coordinator & Turn Indicator

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Chapter 6 - Inertial Navigation System

Chapter 7 - Glass Cockpit

Chapter 8 - Autopilot

Chapter 9 - Electronic Flight Instrument System

Chapter 10 - Pitot-Static System

Chapter 11 - Flight Data Recorder

Chapter 12 - Head-Up Display

Chapter 13 - Annunciator Panel

Chapter 14 - Avionics

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Chapter 1

Flight Instruments

WT
The cockpit of a Slingsby T-67 Firefly two-seat light airplane. The flight instruments are
visible on the left of the instrument panel

Flight instruments are the instruments in the cockpit of an aircraft that provide the pilot
with information about the flight situation of that aircraft, such as height, speed and
altitude. The flight instruments are of particular use in conditions of poor visibility, such
as in clouds, when such information is not available from visual reference outside the
aircraft.

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The term is sometimes used loosely as a synonym for cockpit instruments as a whole, in
which context it can include engine instrument, navigational and communication
equipment.

Flight instruments
Most aircraft have these flight instruments:

Altimeter

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The altimeter shows the aircraft's altitude above sea-level by measuring the difference
between the pressure in a stack of aneroid capsules inside the altimeter and the
atmospheric pressure obtained through the static system. It is adjustable for local
barometric pressure which must be set correctly to obtain accurate altitude readings. As

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the aircraft ascends, the capsules expand as the static pressure drops therefore causing the
altimeter to indicate a higher altitude. The opposite occurs when descending.

Attitude indicator

The attitude indicator (also known as an artificial horizon) shows the aircraft's attitude
relative to the horizon. From this the pilot can tell whether the wings are level and if the
aircraft nose is pointing above or below the horizon. This is a primary instrument for
instrument flight and is also useful in conditions of poor visibility. Pilots are trained to
use other instruments in combination should this instrument or its power fail.

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 WT
Schempp-Hirth Janus-C glider Instrument panel equipped for "cloud flying". The turn
and bank indicator is top center. The heading indicator is replaced by a GPS-driven
computer with wind and glide data, driving two electronic variometer displays to the
right.

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Airspeed indicator

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The airspeed indicator shows the aircraft's speed (usually in knots ) relative to the
surrounding air. It works by measuring the ram-air pressure in the aircraft's pitot tube.
The indicated airspeed must be corrected for air density (which varies with altitude,
temperature and humidity) in order to obtain the true airspeed, and for wind conditions in
order to obtain the speed over the ground.

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Magnetic compass

WT
The compass shows the aircraft's heading relative to magnetic north. While reliable in
steady level flight it can give confusing indications when turning, climbing, descending,
or accelerating due to the inclination of the Earth's magnetic field. For this reason, the
heading indicator is also used for aircraft operation. For purposes of navigation it may be
necessary to correct the direction indicated (which points to a magnetic pole) in order to
obtain direction of true north or south (which points to the Earth's axis of rotation).

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Heading indicator

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The heading indicator (also known as the directional gyro, or DG; sometimes also called
the gyrocompass, though usually not in aviation applications) displays the aircraft's
heading with respect to geographical north. Principle of operation is a spinning
gyroscope, and is therefore subject to drift errors (called precession) which must be
periodically corrected by calibrating the instrument to the magnetic compass. In many
advanced aircraft (including almost all jet aircraft), the heading indicator is replaced by a
Horizontal Situation Indicator (HSI) which provides the same heading information, but
also assists with navigation

Turn indicator

The turn indicator displays direction of turn and rate of turn. Internally mounted
inclinometer displays 'quality' of turn, i.e. whether the turn is correctly coordinated, as

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opposed to an uncoordinated turn, wherein the aircraft would be in either a slip or a skid.
The original turn and bank indicator was replaced in the late 1960s and early '70s by the
newer turn coordinator, which is responsive to roll as well as rate of turn, the turn and
bank is typically only seen in aircraft manufactured prior to that time, or in gliders
manufactured in Europe.

Vertical speed indicator

WT
The VSI (also sometimes called a variometer). Senses changing air pressure, and displays
that information to the pilot as a rate of climb or descent in feet per minute, meters per
second or knots.

Additional panel instruments that may not be found in smaller aircraft include:

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Course deviation indicator

The CDI is an avionics instrument used in aircraft navigation to determine an aircraft's

lateral position in relation to a track, which can be provided by a VOR or an Instrument

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Landing System.

This instrument can also be integrated with the heading indicator in a horizontal situation
indicator.

Radio Magnetic Indicator

An RMI is generally coupled to an automatic direction finder (ADF), which provides

bearing for a tuned Non-directional beacon (NDB). While simple ADF displays may
have only one needle, a typical RMI has two, coupled to different ADF receivers,
allowing for position fixing using one instrument.

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Layout

WT
Six basic instruments in a light twin-engine airplane arranged in a "basic-T". From top
left: airspeed indicator, attitude indicator, altimeter, turn coordinator, heading indicator,
and vertical speed indicator

Most aircraft are equipped with a standard set of flight instruments which give the pilot
information about the aircraft's attitude, airspeed, and altitude.

T arrangement

Most aircraft built since about 1953 have four of the flight instruments located in a
standardized pattern called the T arrangement. The attitude indicator is in the top center,
airspeed to the left, altimeter to the right and heading indicator under the attitude
indicator. The other two, turn-coordinator and vertical-speed, are usually found under the
airspeed and altimeter, but are given more latitude in placement. The magnetic compass
will be above the instrument panel, often on the windscreen centerpost. In newer aircraft
with glass cockpit instruments the layout of the displays conform to the basic T
arrangement.

Basic Six

In 1937 the Royal Air Force (RAF) chose a set of six essential flight instruments which
would remain the standard panel used for flying in Instrument Meteorological Conditions
(IMC) for the next 20 years. They were:

• airspeed indicator (knots)

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 • attitude indicator
• vertical speed indicator (rate of climb)
• altimeter
• directional gyro (compass)
• turn and bank indicator (aircraft attitude)

This panel arrangement was incorporated into every RAF aircraft, from the light Tiger
Moth, to the heavy Avro Lancaster, and minimized the type-conversion difficulties
associated with Blind Flying, since a pilot trained on one aircraft could quickly become
accustomed to any other if the instruments were identical.

This Basic Six set, also known as a six pack, was also adopted by commercial aviation.
After the Second World War the arrangement was changed to: (top row) airspeed,
artificial horizon, altimeter, (bottom row) radio compass, direction indicator, vertical
speed.

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Chapter 2

Flight Control Modes (Electronic)

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Flight control modes (electronic)

New aircraft designs like this Boeing 777 rely on

sophisticated flight computers to aid and protect the
aircraft in flight. These are governed by
computational laws which assign flight control modes
during flight

Aircraft with fly-by-wire flight controls require computer controlled flight control modes
that are capable of determining the operational mode (computational law) of the aircraft.

A reduction of electronic flight control can be caused by the failure of a computational

device, such as the flight control computer or an information providing device, such as
the ADIRU.

Electronic flight control systems (EFCS) also provide augmentation in normal flight,
such as increased protection of the aircraft from overstress or providing a more
comfortable flight for passengers by recognizing and correcting for turbulence and
providing yaw damping.

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Two aircraft manufacturers produce commercial passenger aircraft with primary flight
computers that can perform under different flight control modes (or laws). The most well-
known are the Normal, Alternate, Direct and Mechanical Laws of the Airbus A320-
A380.

Boeing's fly-by-wire system is used in the Boeing 777. Boeing also has two other
commercial aircraft under development, the 787 and the 747-8, which will use fly-by-
wire controls.

These newer generation of aircraft use the lighter weight electronic systems to increase
safety and performance while lowering aircraft weight. Since these systems can also
protect the aircraft from overstress situations, the designers can therefore reduce over-
engineered components, further reducing weight.

Philosophies of design

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Aircraft designers have created a set of flight control modes that include redundant
electronics to safeguard against system failures. Failures can occur singly or combined to
render systems inoperable. Pilots must be able to control the aircraft with some, or even
none, of the computational electronics functioning. In the case of Airbus the back-ups are
the direct and mechanical modes. Boeing's direct mode removes many of the
computational 'limitations'.

In older aircraft, control is through the pilot's control column, rudder pedals, trim wheel
or throttles that mechanically move cables, pulleys or hydraulic servo valves. These then
move control surfaces or change engine settings.

Many newer aircraft replace these mechanical controls with fly-by-wire systems. These
aircraft have flight control computers which operate control surfaces, inform the pilot and
provide performance information. In older aircraft the pilot's mechanical controls are
resisted by the forces acting on the control surface, but nothing prevents the aircraft from
stalling, over-speeding or an excessive bank angle at high speed. Fly-by-wire systems
limit control surface movements to ensure that aircraft limits are not exceeded.

Another function of flight control laws is to assess the performance of the aircraft under
various conditions, such as takeoff, landing or normal cruise when flight control
computers partially or completely fail. Designers build in the ability to by-pass the
computers or for the standby systems to operate without the computers.

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Flight control laws (Airbus)

WT A330-200 in flight mode

Airbus aircraft designs after the A300/A310 are almost completely controlled by fly-by-
wire equipment. These newer aircraft, including the A320, A330, A340, A350 and A380
operate under Airbus flight control Laws. The flight controls on the Airbus 330, for
example, are all electronically controlled and hydraulically activated. Some surfaces,
such as the rudder, can also be mechanically controlled. While in normal flight the
computers act to prevent excessive forces in the pitch and roll.

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 WT Airbus 320-100 Cockpit

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 WT
Illustration of the Air-data reference system on Airbus A330

The aircraft is controlled by three primary control computers (Captain's, First Officer's
and Standby) and two secondary control computers (Captain's and First Officer's). In
addition there are two Flight Control Data Computers (FCDC) that read information from
the sensors, such as air data (airspeed, altitude). This is fed along with GPS data, into
three processing units known as ADIRUs (Air data/inertial reference units) which act
both as an air data reference and inertial reference. ADIRUs are part of the air data
inertial reference system, which, on the Airbus is linked to eight air data modules: three
are linked to pitot tubes and five are linked to static sources. Information from the
ADIRU is fed into one of several flight control computers (Primary and secondary flight
control). The computers also receive information from the control surfaces of the aircraft
and from the pilots aircraft control devices and autopilot. Information from these
computers is sent both to the pilot's primary flight display and also to the control
surfaces.

There are four named flight control laws, however Alternate Law consists of two modes,
Alternate Law 1 and Alternate Law 2. Each of these modes have different sub modes:
ground mode, flight mode and flare, plus a back-up Mechanical Law.

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Normal law

Normal Law differs depending on the stage of flight. These include:

• Stationary at the gate

• Taxiing from the gate to a runway or from a runway back to the gate
• Beginning the take-off roll
• Initial climb
• Cruise climb and cruise flight at altitude
• Final descent, flare and landing.

Normal Law is different depending on the stage of flight. During the transition from take-
off to cruise there is a 5 second transition, from descent to flare there is a two second
delay and from flare to ground there is another 2 second transition in Normal Law.

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Ground mode
The aircraft behaves as in direct mode: The autotrim feature is turned off and there is a
direct response of the elevators to control column (or sidestick on Airbus) inputs. The
horizontal stabilizer is set to 4° up but manual settings (e.g. for center of gravity) override
this setting. After the wheels leave the ground, a 5 second transition occurs where Normal
Law - flight mode takes over from ground mode.

Flight mode
The flight mode of Normal Law provides five types of protection: Pitch attitude, load
factor limitations, high speed, high-AOA and bank angle. Flight mode is operational from
take-off to 100 feet above the ground, but can be lost as a result of pilot commands or
system failures. Loss of Normal Law as a result of a system failure results in Alternate
Law 1 or 2.

Unlike conventional controls, in Normal Law flight mode the sidestick provides a load
factor proportional to stick deflection which is independent of aircraft speed. When the
stick is neutral and the load factor is 1g the aircraft remains in level flight without the
pilot changing the elevator trim. The aircraft also maintains a proper pitch angle once a
turn has been established, up to 33° bank. The system prevents further trim up when the
angle of attack is excessive, the load factor exceeds 1.3g or when the bank angle exceeds
33°.

Alpha protection (α-Prot) prevents stalling and the effects of windshear. The protection
engages when the angle of attack is between α-Prot and α-Max and limits the angle of
attack commanded by the pilot's sidestick or, if autopilot is engaged, it disengages the
autopilot.

High speed protection will automatically recover from an overspeed. There are two speed
limitations for high altitude aircraft, VMO (Velocity Maximum Operational) and MMO

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(Mach Maximum Operational) the two speeds are the same at approximately 31,000 feet,
below which overspeed is determined by VMO and above 31,000 feet by MMO.

Flare mode

WT A380 in take off

This mode is automatically engaged when the radar altimeter indicates 100 feet above
ground. At 50 feet the aircraft trims the nose slightly down. During the flare, Normal Law
provides high-AOA protection and bank angle protection. The load factor is permitted to
be from 2.5g to -1g, or 2.0g to 0g when slats are extended. Pitch attitude is limited to +30
to -15° which is reduced to 25° as the aircraft slows.

Alternate law

The are four reconfiguration modes for the Airbus fly-by-wire aircraft, two Alternate Law
(1 and 2), Direct Law and Mechanical Law. The ground mode and flare modes for
Alternate Law are identical to those modes for Normal Law.

Alternate law 1 (ALT1) mode combines a Normal Law lateral mode with the load factor,
bank angle protections retained. High angle of attack protection may be lost and low
energy (level flight stall) protection is lost. High speed and high angle of attack
protections enter alternative law mode.

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ALT1 maybe entered if there are faults in the horizontal stabilizer, an elevator, yaw-
damper actuation, slat or flap sensor, or a single air data reference fault.

Alternate law 2 (ALT2) loses Normal Law lateral mode (replaced by roll direct mode
and yaw alternate mode) along with pitch attitude protection, bank angle protection and
low energy protection. Load factor protection is retained. High angle of attack and high
speed protections are retained unless the reason for Alternate 2 Law mode is the failure of
two air-data references or if the two remaining air data references disagree.

ALT2 mode is entered when 2 engines flame out (on dual engine aircraft), faults in two
inertial or air-data references, with the autopilot being lost, except with an ADR disagree.
This mode may also be entered with an all spoilers fault, certain ailerons fault, or pedal
transducers fault.

Direct law

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Direct mode (DIR) loses normal lateral mode and all protections, the aircraft assumes
Alternate Law yaw mode and Direct Law roll mode. Elevator can then only be controlled
by the manual trim. Control surface motion is directly related to the sidestick and rudder
pedal motion.

DIR is entered if there is failure of three inertial reference units or the primary flight
computers, faults in two elevators, flame out in two engines (on a two engine aircraft) or
when the captain's primary flight computer is inoperable.

Mechanical law

In the Mechanical Law back-up mode, pitch is controlled by the mechanical trim system
and lateral direction is controlled by the rudder pedals operating the rudder mechanically.

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Boeing 777 Primary Flight Control System

control

WT
The cockpit of the 777 is similar to 747-400, a fly-by-wire control simulating mechanical

The fly-by-wire electronic flight control system of the Boeing 777 differs from the
Airbus EFCS. The design principle is to provide a system that responds similarly to a
mechanically controlled system. Because the system is controlled electronically the flight
control system can provide flight envelope protection.

The electronic system is subdivided between 2 levels, the 4 actuator control electronics
(ACE) and the 3 primary flight computers (PFC). The ACEs control actuators (from
those on pilot controls to control surface controls and the PFC). The role of the PFC is to
calculate the control laws and provide feedback forces, pilot information and warnings.

Standard Protections and augmentations

The flight control system on the 777 is designed to restrict control authority beyond
certain range by increasing the back pressure once the desired limit is reached. This is
done via electronically controlled backdrive actuators (controlled by ACE). The
protections and augmentations are: bank angle protection, turn compensation, stall
protection, over-speed protection, pitch control, stability augmentation and thrust
asymmetry compensation. The design philosophy is: "to inform the pilot that the
command being given would put the aircraft outside of its normal operating envelope, but
the ability to do so is not precluded."

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Normal mode

In Normal mode the PFCs transmit actuator commands to the ACEs, which convert them
into analog servo commands. Full functionality is provided, including all enhanced
performance, envelope protection and ride quality features.

Secondary mode

Boeing Secondary mode is comparable to the Airbus Alternate Law, with the PFCs
supplying commands to the ACEs. However, EFCS functionality is reduced, including
loss of flight envelope protection. Like the Airbus system, this state is entered when a
number of failures occur in the EFCS or interfacing systems (e.g. ADIRU or SAARU).

Direct mode

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In Direct mode each ACE decodes pilot commands directly from the pilot controller
transducers. This mode can be manually or automatically entered. Automatic entry occurs
when there is a failure of all PFCs, ACEs, and/or loss of a control data bus.

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Chapter 3

Variometer & Machmeter

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Variometer
A variometer (also known as a rate of climb and descent Indicator (RCDI), rate-of-
climb indicator, vertical speed indicator (VSI), or vertical velocity indicator (VVI))
is one of the flight instruments in an aircraft used to inform the pilot of the near
instantaneous (rather than averaged) rate of descent or climb. It can be calibrated in
knots, feet per minute (101.333 ft/min = 1 kn) or metres per second, depending on
country and type of aircraft.

In powered flight the pilot makes frequent use of the VSI to ascertain that level flight is
being maintained, especially during turning manoeuvres. In gliding, the instrument is
used almost continuously during normal flight, often with an audible output, to inform
the pilot of rising or sinking air. It is usual for gliders to be equipped with more than one
type of variometer. The simpler type does not need an external source of power and can
therefore be relied upon to function regardless of whether a battery or power source has
been fitted. The electronic type with audio needs a power source to be operative during
the flight. The instrument is of little interest during launching and landing, with the
exception of aerotow, where the pilot will usually want to avoid releasing in sink.

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 WTVariometer for Paragliders, Hang Gliders and Ballooneers

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Description

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Schematic drawing of the internals of a classic aircraft variometer

Variometers measure the rate of change of altitude by detecting the change in air pressure
(static pressure) as altitude changes. A simple variometer can be constructed by adding a
large reservoir (a thermos bottle) to augment the storage capacity of a common aircraft
rate-of-climb instrument. In its simplest electronic form, the instrument consists of an air
bottle connected to the external atmosphere through a sensitive air flow meter. As the
aircraft changes altitude, the atmospheric pressure outside the aircraft changes and air
flows into or out of the air bottle to equalise the pressure inside the bottle and outside the
aircraft. The rate and direction of flowing air is measured by the cooling of one of two
self-heating thermistors and the difference between the thermistor resistances will cause a
voltage difference; this is amplified and displayed to the pilot. The faster the aircraft is
ascending (or descending), the faster the air flows. Air flowing out of the bottle indicates
that the altitude of the aircraft is increasing. Air flowing into the bottle indicates that the
aircraft is descending.

Newer variometer designs directly measure the static pressure of the atmosphere using a
pressure sensor and detect changes in altitude directly from the change in air pressure
instead of by measuring air flow. These designs tend to be smaller as they do not need the
air bottle. They are more reliable as there is no bottle to be affected by changes in
temperature and less chances for leaks to occur in the connecting tubes.

The designs described above, which measure the rate of change of altitude by
automatically detecting the change in static pressure as the aircraft changes altitude are
referred to as "uncompensated" variometers. The term "vertical speed indicator" or "VSI"
is most often used for the instrument when it is installed in a powered aircraft. The term
"variometer" is most often used when the instrument is installed in a glider or sailplane.

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An "Inertia lead" VSI or ILVSI compensates for relative "g" forces experienced in a turn
(powered aircraft) and provides appropriate mechanical compensation to remove
otherwise erroneous indications of climb or descent.

Purpose
WT Panel mounted variometer for gliders

Human beings, unlike birds and other flying animals, are not able directly to sense climb
and sink rates. Before the invention of the variometer, sailplane pilots found it very hard
to soar. Although they could readily detect abrupt changes in vertical speed ("in the seat
of the pants"), their senses did not allow them to distinguish lift from sink, or strong lift
from weak lift. The actual climb/sink rate could not even be guessed at, unless there was
some clear fixed visual reference nearby. Being near a fixed reference means being near
to a hillside, or to the ground. Except when hill-soaring (exploiting the lift close to the
up-wind side of a hill), these are generally very unprofitable positions for glider pilots to
be in. The most useful forms of lift (thermal and wave lift) are found at higher altitudes
and it is very hard for a pilot to detect or exploit them without the use of a variometer.

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After the variometer was invented in 1929 by Alexander Lippisch and Robert Kronfeld,
the sport of gliding moved into a new realm.

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The vertical speed indicator from a Robinson R22

Total energy compensation

As the sport developed, however, it was found that these very simple "uncompensated"
instruments had their limitations. The information that glider pilots really need to soar is
the vertical speed of the glider in isolation of stick thermals, i.e., in isolation of changes
in altitude due exclusively to changes in speed.

When the pilot chooses to pull up to enter a thermal or to dive to exit a sink area, an
uncompensated variometer will include the change in altitude due to the change in
velocity in its read-out, thus marring the airmass' climb or sink rate. Therefore an
uncompensated variometer can only accurately indicate the vertical speed of the airmass
when flying at constant speed.

The action of diving or pulling up affects the speed of the sailplane. A sailplane can
exchange height for speed or speed for height, i.e. potential energy for kinetic energy or
kinetic energy for potential energy. In fact, in still air, the sum of potential energy and
kinetic energy, i.e., the Total Energy, remains constant (neglecting energy loss due to
drag), hence the name Total Energy compensation.

Most modern sailplanes are equipped with Total Energy compensated variometers.

Total energy compensation in theory

While the driving principle is:

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1. Potential Energy + Kinetic Energy = Total Energy

the compensation to cancel stick thermals is:

2. Potential Energy Gained = Kinetic Energy Lost (stick thermal)

i.e.:

3. ΔEpot = − ΔEkin

or

4. ΔEpot + ΔEkin = 0

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Since

5. Potential Energy is proportional to Height ( )

and

6. Kinetic Energy is proportional to Velocity squared ( ),

then from (3):

7.

where

8. Δh is the compensation to apply to the uncompensated variometer reading.

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right.

WT
The Vertical Speed Indicator in this Van's RV-4 light aircraft is on the top row, on the

Total energy compensation in practice

In most sailplanes, total energy compensation is achieved by connecting the variometer to

the atmosphere via a "total energy probe", that produces vacuum proportional to the
square of the glider's air speed - in effect, a negative pitot. Alternatively, the subtraction
may be done electronically by the flight computer based on indicated airspeed (pitot).

Very few powered aircraft have total energy variometers. The pilot of a powered aircraft
is more interested in the true rate of change of altitude, as he often wants to hold a
constant altitude or maintain a steady climb or descent.

The total energy probe used to be shaped as a classical venturi (two small funnels
connected back-to-back by their narrow ends), or nowadays the Irving Tube - a slot or
pair of holes on the back side of a quarter inch vertical tube. The geometry of the total
energy probe is such that air flow generates suction (reduced pressure).

To maximise the precision of this compensation effect, the total energy probe needs to be
in undisturbed airflow ahead of the aircraft nose or tail fin (the "Braunschweig tube", the
long cantilevered tube with a kink in the end that can be seen projecting from the leading
edge of the tail fin on most modern sailplanes.)

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Netto variometer
A second type of compensated variometer is the Netto or airmass variometer. In addition
to TE compensation, the Netto variometer adjusts for the intrinsic sink rate of the glider
at a given speed (the polar curve) adjusted for the wing loading due to water ballast. The
Netto variometer will always read zero in still air. This provides the pilot with the
accurate measurement of air mass vertical movement critical for final glides.

The Relative Netto Variometer indicates the vertical speed the glider would achieve IF
it flies at thermalling speed - independent of current air speed and attitude. This reading is
calculated as the Netto reading minus the glider's minimum sink.

When the glider circles to thermal, the pilot needs to know the glider's vertical speed
instead of that of the air mass. The Relative Netto Variometer (or sometimes the super

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Netto) includes a g-sensor to detect thermalling.

When thermalling, the sensor will detect acceleration (gravity plus centrifugal) above 1 g
and tell the relative netto variometer to stop subtracting the sailplane's wing load-adjusted
polar sink rate for the duration. Some earlier nettos used a manual switch instead of the g
sensor.

Electronic variometers
In modern gliders, most electronic variometers generate a sound whose pitch and rhythm
depends on the instrument reading. Typically the audio tone increases in frequency as the
variometer shows a higher rate of climb and decreases in frequency towards a deep groan
as the variometer shows a faster rate of descent. When the variometer is showing a climb,
the tone is often chopped, while during a descent the tone is not chopped and the rate of
chopping may be increased as the climb rate increases. The vario is typically silent in still
air or in lift which is weaker than the typical sink rate of the glider at minimum sink. This
audio signal allows the pilot to concentrate on the external view instead of having to
watch the instruments, thus improving safety and also giving the pilot more opportunity
to search for promising looking clouds and other signs of lift. A variometer that produces
this type of audible tone is known as an "audio variometer".

Advanced electronic variometers in gliders can present other information to the pilot
from GPS receivers. The display can thus show the bearing, distance and height required
to reach an objective. In cruise mode (used in straight flight), the vario can also give an
audible indication of the correct speed to fly depending on whether the air is rising or
sinking. The pilot merely has to input the estimated MacCready setting, which is the
expected rate of climb in the next acceptable thermal.

There is an increasing trend for advanced variometers in gliders which tend towards
flight computers and present other information such as controlled airspace, lists of
turnpoints and even collision warnings. Some will also store positional GPS data during
the flight for later analysis.

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Radio controlled soaring
Variometers are also used in radio controlled gliders. Typically it takes the form of a
radio transmitter in the plane, and a receiver held by the pilot on the ground. Depending
on the design, the receiver may give the pilot the current altitude of the plane (an
altimeter) and some sort of display that indicates if the plane is gaining or losing
altitude—often via a tone just like in full scale gliders. Other forms of telemetry may also
be provided by the system, giving things such as airspeed and battery voltage. Varios
used in radio controlled planes may or may not feature total energy compensation (the
better/more expensive ones generally do.)

Variometers are strictly optional for R/C glider use—a skilled pilot can generally
determine if their plane is going up or down via visual cues alone, and so the use of a
variometer is often seen as a `crutch', as a replacement for skill, and many pilots prefer

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not to use them at all, as the tone can be distracting, and the (usually small) amount of
weight added to the plane does affect performance. The use of variometers is permitted in
some R/C soaring contests and prohibited in others.

Perhaps the most popular brands of R/C variometers are the Picolario and the WsTech CS
Voice.

Machmeter

Illustration showing the face of a Machmeter reading a Mach number of 0.83

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A Machmeter is an aircraft pitot-static system flight instrument that shows the ratio of
the true airspeed to the speed of sound, a dimensionless quantity called Mach number.
This is shown on a Machmeter as a decimal fraction. An aircraft flying at the speed of
sound is flying at a Mach number of one, expressed as Mach 1.

Use
As an aircraft in transonic flight approaches the speed of sound, it first reaches its critical
mach number, where air flowing over low-pressure areas of its surface locally reaches the
speed of sound, forming shock waves. The indicated airspeed for this condition changes
with ambient pressure, which in turn changes with altitude. Therefore, indicated airspeed
is not entirely adequate to warn the pilot of the impending problems. Mach number is
more useful, and most high-speed aircraft are limited to a maximum operating Mach
number, also known as MMO.

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For example, if the MMO is Mach 0.83, then at 30,000 feet (9,144 m) where the speed of
sound under standard conditions is 590 knots (1,093 km/h; 679 mph), the true airspeed at
MMO is 489 knots (906 km/h; 563 mph). The speed of sound increases with air
temperature, so at Mach 0.83 at 10,000 feet (3,048 m) where the air is much warmer than
at 30,000 feet (9,144 m), the true airspeed at MMO would be 530 knots (982 km/h;
610 mph).

Operation
Some older mechanical Machmeters use an altitude aneroid and an airspeed capsule
which together convert pitot-static pressure into Mach number. Modern electronic
Machmeters use information from an air data computer system.

Calibration
In subsonic flow the Mach meter can be calibrated according to:

where:

is Mach number
is impact pressure and
is static pressure
and assuming the ratio of specific heats is 1.4

When a shock wave forms across the pitot tube the required formula is derived from the
Rayleigh Supersonic Pitot equation, and is solved iteratively:

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where:

is now impact pressure measured behind a normal shock.

Note that the inputs required are impact pressure (or total pressure) and static pressure.
Air temperature input is not required

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Chapter 4

Attitude Indicator & Heading Indicator

Attitude Indicator

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Attitude indicator with integrated localizer and glideslope indicators, earth below (brown)
and sky above (blue) it's perfectly level and not turning, possibly in a slight dive/descent.

An attitude indicator (AI), also known as gyro horizon or artificial horizon, is an

instrument used in an aircraft to inform the pilot of the orientation of the aircraft relative
to earth. It indicates pitch (fore and aft tilt) and bank or roll (side to side tilt) and is a
primary instrument for flight in instrument meteorological conditions. Attitude indicators
also have significant application under visual flight rules, though some light aircraft do
not have them installed.

Use
The essential components of the indicator are:

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 • "miniature wings", horizontal lines with a dot between them representing the
actual wings and nose of the aircraft.
• the center horizon bar separating the two halves of the display, with the top half
usually blue in color to represent sky and the bottom half usually dark to represent
earth.
• degree marks representing the bank angle. They run along the rim of the dial. On
a typical indicator, the first 3 marks on both sides of the center mark are 10
degrees apart. The next is 60 degrees and the mark in the middle of the dial is 90
degrees.

If the symbolic aircraft dot is above the horizon line (blue background) the aircraft is
nose up. If the symbolic aircraft dot is below the horizon line (brown background) the
aircraft is nose down. When the dot and wings are on the horizon line, the aircraft is in
level flight. Because it is the horizon that moves up and down and turns, while the
symbolic aircraft is fixed relative to the rest of the instrument panel, trainees get

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confused; a standard corrective given by flight instructors is "Fly the little airplane, not
the horizon."

A 45 degree turn is approximated by placing the indicator equidistant between the 30 and
60 degree marks.

The pitch angle is relative to the ground, which is not as helpful as knowing the angle of
attack of the wing, a much more critical measure of performance. The pilot must infer the
total performance by using other instruments such as the airspeed indicator, altimeter,
vertical speed indicator, and power instruments, e.g. an engine tachometer.

Most Russian-built aircraft have a somewhat different design. The background display is
colored as in a Western instrument, but moves up and down only to indicate pitch. A
symbol representing the aircraft (which is fixed in a Western instrument) rolls left or right
to indicate bank angle.

It was proposed that a hybrid version of the Western and Russian artificial horizon
systems to be developed that would be more intuitive than either.

Operation

Schematics drawing of the insides of a classic attitude indicator

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Attitude indicators use a gyroscope (powered via vacuum pump or electrical motor) to
establish an inertial platform. The gyroscope is geared to a display that has two
dimensions of freedom, simultaneously displaying pitch and bank. The display may be
colored to indicate the horizon as the division between the two colored segments
(typically blue for sky and brown for ground), and is intended to be intuitive to use. The
actual bank angle is calibrated around the circumference of the instrument. The pitch
angle is indicated by a series of calibration lines, each representing 5° or 10° of pitch
depending on design. The Artificial Horizon has turning errors when turning through 090
and 270 degrees, and it has no turning errors when turning through 180 and 000 degrees.
For example, when turning through 090 degrees the Artificial Horizon will show nose up
and bank angle too low. When turning through 180 degrees it will show nose up and bank
angle correct.

Some attitude indicators can only tolerate a specific range of bank angles. If the aircraft
rolls too steeply — while performing aerobatics, for example — the attitude indicator can

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"tumble" and become temporarily unusable. For this reason, some attitude indicators are
fitted with a "cage" (a device to restore the gyroscope to an erect position). Most modern
attitude indicators slowly re-erect back to level after a tumble. Others do not tumble at
all.

AHRS are able to provide three-axis information that can be shared with multiple devices
in the aircraft, such as "glass cockpit" primary flight displays (PFDs). AHRS have been
proven to be highly reliable and are in wide use in commercial and business aircraft.
Recent advances in MEMS manufacturing have brought the price of FAA-certified
AHRS down to less than $15,000, making them practical for general aviation aircraft.

With most AHRS systems, if an aircraft's AIs have failed there will be a standby AI
located in the center of the instrument panel, where other standby basic instruments such
as the airspeed indicator and the attitude indicator are also available. These mostly
mechanical standby instruments may be available even if the electronic flight instruments
fail, though the standby attitude indicator is electrically driven and will, after a short time,
fail if electrical power to it fails.

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Heading Indicator

WT A heading indicator in a small aircraft.

The heading indicator (also called an HI) is a flight instrument used in an aircraft to
inform the pilot of the aircraft's heading. It is sometimes referred to by its older names,
the directional gyro or DG, and also (UK usage) direction indicator or DI.

Use
The primary means of establishing the heading in most small aircraft is the magnetic
compass, which, however, suffers from several types of errors, including that created by
the 'dip' or downward slope of the earth's magnetic field. Dip error causes the magnetic
compass to read incorrectly whenever the aircraft is in a bank, or during acceleration,
making it difficult to use in any flight condition other than perfectly straight and level. To
remedy this, the pilot will typically maneuver the airplane with reference to the heading
indicator, as the gyroscopic heading indicator (HI) is unaffected by dip and acceleration
errors. The pilot will periodically reset the HI to the heading shown on the magnetic
compass.

Operation
The DG works using a gyroscope, tied to the aircraft horizontal, to establish an inertial
platform. As such any configuration of the aircraft horizontal which does not match the

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local earth horizontal results in gimbal error (essentially leading to a variation in the
predictable 'apparent' wander known in this instance as drift.) The HI is arranged so that
only the horizontal axis is used to drive the display, which consists of a circular compass
card calibrated in degrees. The gyroscope is spun either electrically, or using air from a
vacuum pump (sometimes a pressure pump in high altitude aircraft) driven from the
aircraft's engine. Because the earth rotates (ω, 15° per hour), and because of small
accumulated errors caused by friction and imperfect balancing of the gyro, the HI will
drift over time, and must be reset from the compass periodically. The apparent drift is
predicted by ω sin Latitude and will thus be greatest over the poles. Another sort of
apparent drift exist in the form of transport wander, where aircraft movement will
essentially add or subtract to the effect of the earth's rotation upon a gyroscope. To
counter for the effect of earth rate drift a latitude nut can be set (on the ground only)
which induces a (hopefully equal and opposite) real wander in the gyroscope. Normal
procedure is to realign the direction indicator once each ten to fifteen minutes during
routine in-flight checks. Failure to do this is a common source of navigation errors among

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new pilots.

Variations
Some more expensive heading indicators are 'slaved' to a sensor (called a 'flux gate'). The
flux gate continuously senses the earth's magnetic field, and a servo mechanism
constantly corrects the heading indicator. These 'slaved gyros' reduce pilot workload by
eliminating the need for manual realignment every ten to fifteen minutes.

The prediction of drift in degrees per hour, is as follows:

Sign Sign
SOURCE Drift Rate (Degrees per Hour) (Northern (Southern
Hemisphere) Hemisphere)
15 * sin Mean Operating - (causing an + (causing an
Earth Rate
Latitude under-read) over-read)
Latitude Nut 15 * sin Latitude of Setting + -
(East Groundspeed Component
(or sine track angle x
Transport
groundspeed or change in - +
Wander EAST
longitude/flight time in hours) *
tan Mean Operating Latitude)/60
(West Groundspeed Component
(or sine track angle x
Transport
groundspeed or change in + -
Wander WEST
longitude/flight time in hours) *
tan Mean Operating Latitude)/60
Real/Random As given in the Aircraft
As given As given
Wander Operating Manual

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Although it is possible to predict the drift, there will be minor variations from this basic
model, accounted for by gimbal error (operating the aircraft away from the local
horizontal), among others. A common source of error here is the improper setting of the
latitude nut (to the opposite hemisphere for example). The table however allows one to
gauge whether an indicator is behaving as expected, and as such, is compared with the
realignment corrections made with reference to the magnetic compass. Transport wander
is an undesirable consequence of apparent drift.

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Chapter 5

Turn Coordinator & Turn Indicator

Turn Coordinator

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Image showing the face of a turn coordinator during a standard rate coordinated right
turn.

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The turn coordinator (TC) is a flight instrument which displays to a pilot information
about the rate of yaw (turn), roll, and the coordination of the turn. The turn coordinator
was developed to replace the older turn and bank indicator, which displayed rate and
quality of turn but not rate of roll.

History
The turn coordinator was initially developed as a single instrument used by autopilots to
control the roll axis of an aircraft. The turn coordinator without autopilot sensing became
popular in general aviation airplanes largely because of the newer look. The turn
coordinator rarely appeared in jets or large airplanes.

Use

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The indicator includes a miniature airplane as seen from behind. When the miniature
airplane wings are level, the yaw rate plus the roll rate is zero. When the wings are not
level, the amount and direction of tilt indicates the rate of turn plus the rate of roll. The
indicator includes hash marks to indicate "wings level" flight and standard rate turns of 3°
per second.

The ball inside the curved tube indicates the degree of coordination between two primary
flight controls (aileron and rudder). The position of the ball indicates coordinated flight,
slip or skid.

A pilot corrects for uncoordinated flight with inputs to the rudder. During a coordinated
turn, the ball will remain centered. Ball deflection in the direction of the turn indicates
insufficient rudder input resulting in a slip. Ball deflection opposite the direction of the
turn indicates excessive rudder input resulting in a skid. The mnemonic device "step on
the ball" aids the pilot to remember which rudder pedal requires additional pressure to
return the aircraft to coordinated flight.

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Unlike an attitude indicator, the turn coordinator indicates only yaw rate and roll. The
attitude indicator indicates pitch and roll. To avoid confusion, some turn coordinators are
marked "No pitch information" on the face.

Operation

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Graphic of a turn and bank indicator and a turn coordinator

The turn coordinator is a gyroscopic instrument. An internal gyroscope spins at

approximately 20,000 rpm with the spin axis perpendicular to the longitudinal axis of the
airplane and the free axis tilted up 30° from it. As the aircraft rotates about the yaw or roll
axis, the principle of gyroscopic inertia causes the gyro to resist the change in its
rotational axis about the free axis. This resisting force works against a spring; thus, a

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slow rate of turn deflects the gyro slightly while a higher rate of roll or yaw deflects it
more. The gimbal is linked to the indicator dial on which is the rear view of the miniature
airplane.

The quality of turn is indicated by an inclinometer ball located below the miniature
airplane. The inclinometer consists of a glass tube filled with kerosene, and a dense ball.
The tube is curved such that its center is the lowest point. Normally, the ball will then sit
in the center position of the tube, which represents a 'coordinated' turn. This position is
marked by two vertical wires on the tube. The ball is said to be 'centered' when it sits
perfectly evenly between the two wires.

Variations
The turn coordinator differs from the older turn and bank indicator in that the turn

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coordinator has the gyro mounted at a 30° tilt. This allows the turn coordinator to respond
to roll as well as turn. The TC indication represents a sum of the roll rate and the yaw rate
so it responds more quickly at the beginning and end of a turn than a turn and bank
indicator. Pilots who are unfamiliar with this principle sometimes have difficulty using
the turn coordinator properly, as they may see a roll indication and interpret it as a rate of
turn.

The turn coordinator should be used as a performance instrument when the attitude
indicator has failed. Called "partial panel" operations, this can be unnecessarily difficult
or even impossible if either the pilot does not understand that the instrument is showing
roll rates at some times and turn rates at others, or the internal dashpot is worn out. In the
latter case the instrument is said to be underdamped; in turbulence it will indicate large
full-scale deflections to the left and right, all of which are roll rate responses. In this
condition it may not be possible for the pilot to maintain control of the aircraft in partial-
panel operations in instrument meteorological conditions. For this and other reasons
many highly experienced pilots prefer the "older" turn and bank indicator design.

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Turn Indicator

WT Diagram of a turn indicator.

A turn indicator is an aircraft flight instrument that shows the rate of turn. It is used by
the pilot to maintain control when flying under Instrument flight rules.

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Types

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The rate gyro in a turn-and-slip indicator and turn coordinator.

The first gyroscopic aircraft instrument was the turn and bank indicator (also known as
turn indicator in the needle and ball, or more recently turn and slip indicator).

The major limitation of this instrument is that it senses rotation only about the vertical
axis of the aircraft. It tells nothing of the rotation around the longitudinal axis, which in
normal flight occurs before the aircraft begins to turn.

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The turn coordinator was created to overcome this problem by having its gimbal frame
angled upward about 30° from the longitudinal axis of the aircraft. This allows it to sense
both roll and yaw.

Use and operation

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Precession causes a force applied to a spinning wheel to be felt 90° from the point of
application in the direction of rotation.

The dial of these instruments is usually marked "2 min. turn", although some turn-and-
slip indicators used in faster aircraft like the Concorde are marked "4 min. turn". In
gliders, the calibration spring is usually set for a one-minute standard rate turn. A
standard-rate turn is being made whenever the needle aligns with a turn marking
("doghouse").

Both instruments incorporate an inclinometer-like indicator, which is either a pendulum

or a black glass ball sealed inside a curved glass tube that is partially filled with a liquid

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similar to the fluid used in a compass. This ball measures the relative strength of the force
of gravity and the force of inertia caused by a turn. When the aircraft is flying straight-
and-level, there is no inertia acting on the ball, and it remains in the center of the tube
between two wires. In a turn made with a bank angle that is too steep, the force of gravity
is greater than the inertia and the ball rolls down to the inside of the turn. If the turn is
made with too shallow a bank angle, the inertia is greater than gravity and the ball rolls
upward to the outside of the turn. The ball does not indicate the amount of bank, neither
is it limited to an indication of slip; it only indicates the relationship between the angle of
bank and the rate of yaw.

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Chapter 6

Inertial Navigation System

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An inertial navigation system (INS) is a navigation aid that uses a computer, motion
sensors (accelerometers) and rotation sensors (gyroscopes) to continuously calculate via
dead reckoning the position, orientation, and velocity (direction and speed of movement)
of a moving object without the need for external references. It is used on vehicles such as

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ships, aircraft, submarines, guided missiles, and spacecraft. Other terms used to refer to
inertial navigation systems or closely related devices include inertial guidance system,
inertial reference platform, inertial instrument, and many other variations.

Overview
An inertial navigation system includes at least a computer and a platform or module
containing accelerometers, gyroscopes, or other motion-sensing devices. The INS is
initially provided with its position and velocity from another source (a human operator, a
GPS satellite receiver, etc.), and thereafter computes its own updated position and
velocity by integrating information received from the motion sensors. The advantage of
an INS is that it requires no external references in order to determine its position,
orientation, or velocity once it has been initialized.

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An INS can detect a change in its geographic position (a move east or north, for
example), a change in its velocity (speed and direction of movement), and a change in its
orientation (rotation about an axis). It does this by measuring the linear and angular
accelerations applied to the system. Since it requires no external reference (after
initialization), it is immune to jamming and deception.

Inertial-navigation systems are used in many different moving objects, including

vehicles—such as aircraft, submarines, spacecraft—and guided missiles. However, their
cost and complexity place constraints on the environments in which they are practical for
use.

Gyroscopes measure the angular velocity of the system in the inertial reference frame. By
using the original orientation of the system in the inertial reference frame as the initial
condition and integrating the angular velocity, the system's current orientation is known
at all times. This can be thought of as the ability of a blindfolded passenger in a car to
feel the car turn left and right or tilt up and down as the car ascends or descends hills.
Based on this information alone, he knows what direction the car is facing but not how
fast or slow it is moving, or whether it is sliding sideways.

Accelerometers measure the linear acceleration of the system in the inertial reference
frame, but in directions that can only be measured relative to the moving system (since
the accelerometers are fixed to the system and rotate with the system, but are not aware
of their own orientation). This can be thought of as the ability of a blindfolded passenger
in a car to feel himself pressed back into his seat as the vehicle accelerates forward or
pulled forward as it slows down; and feel himself pressed down into his seat as the
vehicle accelerates up a hill or rise up out of his seat as the car passes over the crest of a
hill and begins to descend. Based on this information alone, he knows how the vehicle is
accelerating relative to itself, that is, whether it is accelerating forward, backward, left,
right, up (toward the car's ceiling), or down (toward the car's floor) measured relative to
the car, but not the direction relative to the Earth, since he did not know what direction
the car was facing relative to the Earth when he felt the accelerations.

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However, by tracking both the current angular velocity of the system and the current
linear acceleration of the system measured relative to the moving system, it is possible to
determine the linear acceleration of the system in the inertial reference frame. Performing
integration on the inertial accelerations (using the original velocity as the initial
conditions) using the correct kinematic equations yields the inertial velocities of the
system, and integration again (using the original position as the initial condition) yields
the inertial position. In our example, if the blindfolded passenger knew how the car was
pointed and what its velocity was before he was blindfolded, and if he is able to keep
track of both how the car has turned and how it has accelerated and decelerated since, he
can accurately know the current orientation, position, and velocity of the car at any time.

Error
All inertial navigation systems suffer from integration drift: small errors in the

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measurement of acceleration and angular velocity are integrated into progressively larger
errors in velocity, which are compounded into still greater errors in position. Since the
new position is calculated from the previous calculated position and the measured
acceleration and angular velocity, these errors are cumulative and increase at a rate
roughly proportional to the time since the initial position was input. Therefore the
position must be periodically corrected by input from some other type of navigation
system. The inaccuracy of a good-quality navigational system is normally less than 0.6
nautical miles per hour in position and on the order of tenths of a degree per hour in
orientation.

Accordingly, inertial navigation is usually used to supplement other navigation systems,

providing a higher degree of accuracy than is possible with the use of any single system.
For example, if, in terrestrial use, the inertially tracked velocity is intermittently updated
to zero by stopping, the position will remain precise for a much longer time, a so-called
zero velocity update.

Control theory in general and Kalman filtering in particular, provide a theoretical

framework for combining information from various sensors. One of the most common
alternative sensors is a satellite navigation radio, such as GPS. By properly combining the
information from an INS and the GPS system (GPS/INS), the errors in position and
velocity are stable. Furthermore, INS can be used as a short-term fallback while GPS
signals are unavailable, for example when a vehicle passes through a tunnel.

History
Inertial navigation systems were originally developed for rockets. American rocket
pioneer Robert Goddard experimented with rudimentary gyroscopic systems. Dr.
Goddard's systems were of great interest to contemporary German pioneers including
Wernher von Braun. The systems entered more widespread use with the advent of
spacecraft, guided missiles, and commercial airliners.

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Early German World War II V2 guidance systems combined two gyroscopes and a lateral
accelerometer with a simple analog computer to adjust the azimuth for the rocket in
flight. Analog computer signals were used to drive four external rudders on the tail fins
for flight control. The GN&C (Guidance, Navigation, and Control) system for V2
provided many innovations as an integrated platform with closed loop guidance. At the
end of the war Von Braun engineered the surrender of 500 of his top rocket scientists,
along with plans and test vehicles, to the Americans. They arrived at Fort Bliss, Texas in
1945 under the provisions of Operation Paperclip and were subsequently moved to
Huntsville, Alabama, in 1950 where they worked for U.S. military rocket research
programs.

In the early 1950s, the US government wanted to insulate itself against over dependency
on the German team for military applications. Among the areas that were domestically
"developed" was missile guidance. In the early 1950s the MIT Instrumentation
Laboratory (later to become the Charles Stark Draper Laboratory, Inc.) was chosen by the

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Air Force Western Development Division to provide a self-contained guidance system
backup to Convair in San Diego for the new Atlas intercontinental ballistic missile
(Construction and testing were completed by Arma Division of AmBosch Arma). The
technical monitor for the MIT task was a young engineer named Jim Fletcher who later
served as the NASA Administrator. The Atlas guidance system was to be a combination
of an on-board autonomous system, and a ground-based tracking and command system.
This was the beginning of a philosophic controversy, which, in some areas, remains
unresolved. The self-contained system finally prevailed in ballistic missile applications
for obvious reasons. In space exploration, a mixture of the two remains.

In the summer of 1952, Dr. Richard Battin and Dr. J. Halcombe "Hal" Laning, Jr.,
researched computational based solutions to guidance. Dr. Laning, with the help of Phil
Hankins and Charlie Werner, initiated work on MAC, an algebraic programming
language for the IBM 650, which was completed by early spring of 1958. MAC became
the work-horse of the MIT lab. MAC is an extremely readable language having a three-
line format, vector-matrix notations and mnemonic and indexed subscripts. Today's
Space Shuttle (STS) language called HAL/S, (developed by Intermetrics, Inc.) is a direct
offshoot of MAC. Since the principal architect of HAL was Jim Miller, who co-authored
a report on the MAC system with Hal Laning, it is probable the Space Shuttle language is
named for Laning and not, as some have suggested, for the electronic star of Stanley
Kubrick's 2001: A Space Odyssey''.

Hal Laning and Richard Battin undertook the initial analytical work on the Atlas inertial
guidance in 1954. Other key figures at Convair were Charlie Bossart, the Chief Engineer,
and Walter Schweidetzky, head of the guidance group. Schweidetzky had worked with
Wernher von Braun at Peenemuende during World War II.

The initial Delta guidance system assessed the difference in position from a reference
trajectory. A velocity to be gained (VGO) calculation is made to correct the current
trajectory with the objective of driving VGO to zero. The mathematics of this approach
were fundamentally valid, but dropped because of the challenges in accurate inertial

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guidance and analog computing power. The challenges faced by the Delta efforts were
overcome by the Q system of guidance. The Q system's revolution was to bind the
challenges of missile guidance (and associated equations of motion) in the matrix Q. The
Q matrix represents the partial derivatives of the velocity with respect to the position
vector. A key feature of this approach allowed for the components of the vector cross
product (v, xdv, /dt) to be used as the basic autopilot rate signals—a technique that
became known as cross-product steering. The Q-system was presented at the first
Technical Symposium on Ballistic Missiles held at the Ramo-Wooldridge Corporation in
Los Angeles on June 21 and 22, 1956. The Q system was classified information through
the 1960s. Derivations of this guidance are used for today's missiles.

Guidance in Human spaceflight

In Feb of 1961 NASA Awarded MIT a contract for preliminary design study of a

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guidance and navigation system for Apollo. MIT and the Delco Electronics Div. of
General Motors Corp. were awarded the joint contract for design and production of the
Apollo Guidance and Navigation systems for the Command Module and the Lunar
Module. Delco produced the Inertial Measurement Units for these systems, Kollsman
Instrument Corp. produced the Optical Systems, and the Apollo Guidance Computer was
built by Raytheon under subcontract.

For the space shuttle, an open loop (no feedback) guidance is used to guide the shuttle
from lift off until Solid Rocket Booster (SRB) separation. After SRB separation the
primary space shuttle guidance is named PEG4 (Powered Explicit Guidance). PEG4 takes
into account both the Q system and the predictor-corrector attributes of the original
"Delta" System (PEG Guidance). Although many updates to the shuttle's navigation
system have taken place over the last 30 years (ex. GPS in the OI-22 build), the guidance
core of today's Shuttle GN&C system has evolved little. Within a manned system, there
is a human interface needed for the guidance system. As Astronauts are the customer for
the system, many new teams are formed that touch GN&C as it is a primary interface to
"fly" the vehicle.

Aircraft inertial guidance

One example of a popular INS for commercial aircraft was the Delco Carousel, which
provided partial automation of navigation in the days before complete flight management
systems became commonplace. The Carousel allowed pilots to enter a series of
waypoints, and then guided the aircraft from one waypoint to the next using an INS to
determine aircraft position and velocity. Boeing Corporation subcontracted the Delco
Electronics Div. of General Motors to design and build the first production Carousel
systems for the early models (-100, -200, and -300) models of the 747 aircraft. The 747
utilized three Carousel systems operating in concert for reliablility purposes. The
Carousel system and derivatives thereof were subsequently adopted for use in many other
commercial and military aircraft. The USAF C-141 was the first military aircraft to
utilize the Carousel in a dual system configuration, followed by the C-5A which utilized

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the triple INS configuration, similar to the 747. The KC-135 fleet was fitted with a dual
Carousel system that was aided by a Doppler radar.

Inertial navigation systems in detail

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 WT Inertial navigation unit of french IRBM S3.

INSs have angular and linear accelerometers (for changes in position); some include a
gyroscopic element (for maintaining an absolute angular reference).

Angular accelerometers measure how the vehicle is rotating in space. Generally, there's at
least one sensor for each of the three axes: pitch (nose up and down), yaw (nose left and
right) and roll (clockwise or counter-clockwise from the cockpit).

Linear accelerometers measure non-gravitational accelerations of the vehicle. Since it can

move in three axes (up & down, left & right, forward & back), there is a linear
accelerometer for each axis.

A computer continually calculates the vehicle's current position. First, for each of the six
degrees of freedom (x,y,z and θx, θy and θz), it integrates over time the sensed
acceleration, together with an estimate of gravity, to calculate the current velocity. Then
it integrates the velocity to calculate the current position.

Inertial guidance is difficult without computers. The desire to use inertial guidance in the
Minuteman missile and Project Apollo drove early attempts to miniaturize computers.

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Inertial guidance systems are now usually combined with satellite navigation systems
through a digital filtering system. The inertial system provides short term data, while the
satellite system corrects accumulated errors of the inertial system.

An inertial guidance system that will operate near the surface of the earth must
incorporate Schuler tuning so that its platform will continue pointing towards the center
of the earth as a vehicle moves from place to place.

Basic schemes
Gimballed gyrostabilized platforms

Some systems place the linear accelerometers on a gimbaled gyrostabilized platform. The
gimbals are a set of three rings, each with a pair of bearings initially at right angles. They

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let the platform twist about any rotational axis (or, rather, they let the platform keep the
same orientation while the vehicle rotates around it). There are two gyroscopes (usually)
on the platform.

Two gyroscopes are used to cancel gyroscopic precession, the tendency of a gyroscope to
twist at right angles to an input force. By mounting a pair of gyroscopes (of the same
rotational inertia and spinning at the same speed) at right angles the precessions are
cancelled, and the platform will resist twisting.

This system allows a vehicle's roll, pitch, and yaw angles to be measured directly at the
bearings of the gimbals. Relatively simple electronic circuits can be used to add up the
linear accelerations, because the directions of the linear accelerometers do not change.

The big disadvantage of this scheme is that it uses many expensive precision mechanical
parts. It also has moving parts that can wear out or jam, and is vulnerable to gimbal lock.
The primary guidance system of the Apollo spacecraft used a three-axis gyrostabilized
platform, feeding data to the Apollo Guidance Computer. Maneuvers had to be carefully
planned to avoid gimbal lock.

Fluid-suspended gyrostabilized platforms

Gimbal lock constrains maneuvering, and it would be beneficial to eliminate the slip
rings and bearings of the gimbals. Therefore, some systems use fluid bearings or a
flotation chamber to mount a gyrostabilized platform. These systems can have very high
precisions (e.g., Advanced Inertial Reference Sphere). Like all gyrostabilized platforms,
this system runs well with relatively slow, low-power computers.

The fluid bearings are pads with holes through which pressurized inert gas (such as
Helium) or oil press against the spherical shell of the platform. The fluid bearings are
very slippery, and the spherical platform can turn freely. There are usually four bearing
pads, mounted in a tetrahedral arrangement to support the platform.

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In premium systems, the angular sensors are usually specialized transformer coils made
in a strip on a flexible printed circuit board. Several coil strips are mounted on great
circles around the spherical shell of the gyrostabilized platform. Electronics outside the
platform uses similar strip-shaped transformers to read the varying magnetic fields
produced by the transformers wrapped around the spherical platform. Whenever a
magnetic field changes shape, or moves, it will cut the wires of the coils on the external
transformer strips. The cutting generates an electric current in the external strip-shaped
coils, and electronics can measure that current to derive angles.

Cheap systems sometimes use bar codes to sense orientations, and use solar cells or a
single transformer to power the platform. Some small missiles have powered the platform
with light from a window or optic fibers to the motor. A research topic is to suspend the
platform with pressure from exhaust gases. Data is returned to the outside world via the
transformers, or sometimes LEDs communicating with external photodiodes.

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Strapdown systems

Lightweight digital computers permit the system to eliminate the gimbals, creating
strapdown systems, so called because their sensors are simply strapped to the vehicle.
This reduces the cost, eliminates gimbal lock, removes the need for some calibrations,
and increases the reliability by eliminating some of the moving parts. Angular rate
sensors called rate gyros measure how the angular velocity of the vehicle changes.

A strapdown system has a dynamic measurement range several hundred times that
required by a gimbaled system. That is, it must integrate the vehicle's attitude changes in
pitch, roll and yaw, as well as gross movements. Gimballed systems could usually do
well with update rates of 50–60 Hz. However, strapdown systems normally update about
2000 Hz. The higher rate is needed to keep the maximum angular measurement within a
practical range for real rate gyros: about 4 milliradians. Most rate gyros are now laser
interferometers.

The data updating algorithms (direction cosines or quaternions) involved are too complex
to be accurately performed except by digital electronics. However, digital computers are
now so inexpensive and fast that rate gyro systems can now be practically used and mass-
produced. The Apollo lunar module used a strapdown system in its backup Abort
Guidance System (AGS).

Strapdown systems are nowadays commonly used in commercial and tactical applications
(aircraft, missiles, etc.). However they are still not widespread in applications where
superb accuracy is required (like submarine navigation or strategic ICBM guidance).

Motion-based alignment

The orientation of a gyroscope system can sometimes also be inferred simply from its
position history (e.g., GPS). This is, in particular, the case with planes and cars, where the
velocity vector usually implies the orientation of the vehicle body.

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For example, Honeywell's Align in Motion is an initialization process where the
initialization occurs while the aircraft is moving, in the air or on the ground. This is
accomplished using GPS and an inertial reasonableness test, thereby allowing
commercial data integrity requirements to be met. This process has been FAA certified to
recover pure INS performance equivalent to stationary align procedures for civilian flight
times up to 18 hours. It avoids the need for gyroscope batteries on aircraft.

Vibrating gyros

Less-expensive navigation systems, intended for use in automobiles, may use a vibrating
structure gyroscope to detect changes in heading, and the odometer pickup to measure
distance covered along the vehicle's track. This type of system is much less accurate than
a higher-end INS, but it is adequate for the typical automobile application where GPS is
the primary navigation system, and dead reckoning is only needed to fill gaps in GPS

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coverage when buildings or terrain block the satellite signals.

Hemispherical Resonator Gyros (wine glass or mushroom gyros)

If a standing wave is induced in a hemispheric resonant cavity, and then the resonant
cavity is rotated, the spherical harmonic standing wave rotates through an angle different
than the quartz resonator structure due to the Coriolis force. The movement of the outer
case with respect to the standing wave pattern is proportional to the total rotation angle
and can be sensed by appropriate electronics. The system resonators are machined from
quartz due to its excellent mechanical properties. The electrodes that drive and sense the
standing waves are deposited directly onto separate quartz structures that surround the
resonator. These gyros can operate in either a whole angle mode (which gives them
nearly unlimited rate capability) or a force rebalance mode that holds the standing wave
in a fixed orientation with respect to the gyro housing (which gives them much better
accuracy).

This system has almost no moving parts, and is very accurate. However it is still
relatively expensive due to the cost of the precision ground and polished hollow quartz
hemispheres. Northrop Grumman currently manufactures Inertial Measurement Units for
spacecraft that use HRGs. These IMUs have demonstrated extremely high reliability
since their initial use in 1996.

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Quartz rate sensors

WT The quartz rate sensor inside an E-Sky model helicopter

This system is usually integrated on a silicon chip. It has two mass-balanced quartz
tuning forks, arranged "handle-to-handle" so forces cancel. Aluminum electrodes
evaporated onto the forks and the underlying chip both drive and sense the motion. The
system is both manufacturable and inexpensive. Since quartz is dimensionally stable, the
system can be accurate.

As the forks are twisted about the axis of the handle, the vibration of the tines tends to
continue in the same plane of motion. This motion has to be resisted by electrostatic
forces from the electrodes under the tines. By measuring the difference in capacitance
between the two tines of a fork, the system can determine the rate of angular motion.

These products include 'tuning fork gyros'. Gyro is designed as an electronically-driven

tuning fork, often fabricated out of a single piece of quartz or silicon. Such gyros operate
in accordance with the dynamic theory that when an angle rate is applied to a translating
body, a Coriolis force is generated.

Current state of the art non-military technology (as of 2005) can build small solid state
sensors that can measure human body movements. These devices have no moving parts,
and weigh about 50 grams.

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Solid state devices using the same physical principles are used for image stabilization in
small cameras or camcorders. These can be extremely small (≈5 mm) and are built with
Microelectromechanical systems (MEMS) technologies.

MHD sensor

Sensors based on magnetohydrodynamic principles can be used to measure angular

velocities.

Laser gyros

A ring laser gyro splits a beam of laser light into two beams in opposite directions
through narrow tunnels in a closed optical circular path around the perimeter of a
triangular block of temperature-stable Cervit glass with reflecting mirrors placed in each

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corner. When the gyro is rotating at some angular rate, the distance traveled by each
beam becomes different—the shorter path being opposite to the rotation. The phase-shift
between the two beams can be measured by an interferometer, and is proportional to the
rate of rotation (Sagnac effect).

In practice, at low rotation rates the output frequency can drop to zero after the result of
back scattering causing the beams to synchronise and lock together. This is known as a
lock-in, or laser-lock. The result is that there is no change in the interference pattern, and
therefore no measurement change.

To unlock the counter-rotating light beams, laser gyros either have independent light
paths for the two directions (usually in fiber optic gyros), or the laser gyro is mounted on
a piezo-electric dither motor that rapidly vibrates the laser ring back and forth about its
input axis through the lock-in region to decouple the light waves.

The shaker is the most accurate, because both light beams use exactly the same path.
Thus laser gyros retain moving parts, but they do not move as far.

Pendular accelerometers

Principle of open loop accelerometer. Acceleration in the upward direction causes the
mass to deflect downward.

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The basic, open-loop accelerometer consists of a mass attached to a spring. The mass is
constrained to move only in-line with the spring. Acceleration causes deflection of the
mass and the offset distance is measured. The acceleration is derived from the values of
deflection distance, mass, and the spring constant. The system must also be damped to
avoid oscillation. A closed-loop accelerometer achieves higher performance by using a
feedback loop to cancel the deflection, thus keeping the mass nearly stationary.
Whenever the mass deflects, the feedback loop causes an electric coil to apply an equally
negative force on the mass, cancelling the motion. Acceleration is derived from the
amount of negative force applied. Because the mass barely moves, the non-linearities of
the spring and damping system are greatly reduced. In addition, this accelerometer
provides for increased bandwidth past the natural frequency of the sensing element.

Both types of accelerometers have been manufactured as integrated micromachinery on

silicon chips.

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Methodology
In one form, the navigational system of equations acquires linear and angular
measurements from the inertial and body frame, respectively and calculates the final
attitude and position in the NED frame of reference.

Where: f is specific force, ω is angular rate, a is acceleration, R is position, and V are

velocity, Ω is the angular velocity of the earth, g is the acceleration due to gravity, Φ,λ
and h are the NED location parameters. Also, super/subscripts of E, I and B are
representing variables in the Earth centered, Inertial or Body reference frame,
respectively and C is a transformation of reference frames.

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Chapter 7

Glass Cockpit

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The Airbus A380 glass cockpit featuring "pull out keyboards and 2 wide computer screen
on the sides for pilots".

A glass cockpit is an aircraft cockpit that features electronic instrument displays. Where
a traditional cockpit relies on numerous mechanical gauges to display information, a
glass cockpit uses several displays driven by flight management systems, that can be
adjusted to display flight information as needed. This simplifies aircraft operation and
navigation and allows pilots to focus only on the most pertinent information. They are
also popular with airline companies as they usually eliminate the need for a flight
engineer. In recent years the technology has become widely available in small aircraft.

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As aircraft displays have modernized, the sensors that feed them have modernized as
well. Traditional gyroscopic flight instruments have been replaced by electronic Attitude
and Heading Reference Systems (AHRS) and Air Data Computers (ADCs), improving
reliability and reducing cost and maintenance. GPS receivers are usually integrated into
glass cockpits.

Early glass cockpits, found in the McDonnell Douglas MD-80/90, Boeing 737 Classic,
757 and 767-200/-300, and in the Airbus A300-600 and A310, used Electronic Flight
Instrument Systems (EFIS) to display attitude and navigational information only, with
traditional mechanical gauges retained for airspeed, altitude and vertical speed. Later
glass cockpits, found in the Boeing 737NG, 747-400, 767-400, 777, A320 and later
Airbuses, Ilyushin Il-96 and Tupolev Tu-204 have completely replaced the mechanical
gauges and warning lights in previous generations of aircraft.

History

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Instrument panel of a C-5A

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 WT New instrument panel for C-5 as part of AMP program

Prior to the 1970s, air transport operations were not considered sufficiently demanding to
require advanced equipment like electronic flight displays. Also, computer technology
was not at a level where sufficiently light and powerful circuits were available. The
increasing complexity of transport aircraft, the advent of digital systems and the growing
air traffic congestion around airports began to change that.

The average transport aircraft in the mid-1970s had more than one hundred cockpit
instruments and controls, and the primary flight instruments were already crowded with
indicators, crossbars, and symbols, and the growing number of cockpit elements were
competing for cockpit space and pilot attention. As a result, NASA conducted research
on displays that could process the raw aircraft system and flight data into an integrated,
easily understood picture of the flight situation, culminating in a series of flights
demonstrating a full glass cockpit system.

The success of the NASA-led glass cockpit work is reflected in the total acceptance of
electronic flight displays beginning with the introduction of the MD-80 in 1979. Airlines
and their passengers alike have benefited. The safety and efficiency of flights has been
increased with improved pilot understanding of the aircraft's situation relative to its
environment (or "situational awareness").

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By the end of the 1990s, Liquid crystal display (LCD) panels were increasingly favored
among aircraft manufacturers because of their efficiency, reliability and legibility. Earlier
LCD panels suffered from poor legibility at some viewing angles and poor response
times, making them unsuitable for aviation. Modern aircraft such as the Boeing 737 Next
Generation, 777, 717, 747-400ER, 767-400ER, 747-8, and 787, Airbus A320 family
(later versions), A330 (later versions), A340-500/600, A340-300 (later versions), A380
and A350 are fitted with glass cockpits consisting of LCD units.

The glass cockpit has become standard equipment in airliners, business jets, and military
aircraft. It was even fitted into NASA's Space Shuttle orbiters Atlantis, Columbia,
Discovery, and Endeavour, and the current Russian Soyuz TMA model spacecraft that
was launched in 2002. By the end of the century glass cockpits began appearing in
general aviation aircraft as well. By 2005, even basic trainers like the Piper Cherokee and
Cessna 172 were shipping with glass cockpits as options (which nearly all customers
chose), and many modern aircraft such as the Diamond Aircraft twin-engine travel and

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training aircraft DA42, and Cirrus Design SR20 and SR22 are available with glass
cockpit only.

Usage
In commercial aviation

The Space Shuttle glass cockpit

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Unlike the previous era of glass cockpits—where designers merely copied the look and
feel of conventional electromechanical instruments onto cathode ray tubes—the new
displays represent a true departure. They look and behave very similarly to other
computers, with windows and data that can be manipulated with point-and-click devices.
They also add terrain, approach charts, weather, vertical displays, and 3D navigation
images.

The improved concepts enable aircraft makers to customize cockpits to a greater degree
than previously. All of the manufacturers involved have chosen to do so in one way or
another—such as using a trackball, thumb pad or joystick as a pilot-input device in a
computer-style environment. Many of the modifications offered by the aircraft
manufacturers improve situational awareness and customize the human-machine interface
to increase safety.

Modern glass cockpits might include Synthetic Vision (SVS) or Enhanced Vision

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systems (EVS). Synthetic Vision systems display a realistic 3D depiction of the outside
world (similar to a flight simulator), based on a database of terrain and geophysical
features in conjunction with the attitude and position information gathered from the
aircraft navigational systems. Enhanced Vision systems add real-time information from
external sensors, such as an infrared camera.

All new airliners such as the Airbus A380, Boeing 787 and private jets such as
Bombardier Global Express and Learjet use glass cockpits.

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In general aviation

WT Garmin G1000 displays in a Cessna 182

Certain general aviation aircraft, such as the 4-seat Diamond Aircraft DA40, DA42 and
DA50 and the 4-seat Cirrus Design SR20 and SR22, are available with glass cockpits.
Systems such as the Garmin G1000 are now available on many new GA aircraft,
including the classic Cessna 172. Some small aircraft can also be modified post-
production to replace steam gauges.

Glass cockpits are also popular as a retrofit for older private jets and turboprops such as
Dassault Falcons, Raytheon Hawkers, Bombardier Challenger, Cessna Citations,
Gulfstreams, King Airs, Learjets, Astras and many others. Aviation service companies
work closely with equipment manufacturers to address the needs of the owners of these
aircraft.

Safety
As aircraft operation becomes more dependent on glass cockpit systems, flight crews
must be trained to deal with possible failures. In one glass-cockpit aircraft, the Airbus
A320, fifty incidents of glass-cockpit blackout have occurred. On 25 January 2008
United Airlines Flight 731 experienced a serious glass-cockpit blackout, losing half of the

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ECAM displays as well as all radios, transponders, TCAS, and attitude indicators.
Partially due to good weather and daylight conditions, the pilots were able to land
successfully at Newark Airport without radio contact. Airbus has offered an optional fix,
which the US NTSB has suggested to the US FAA as mandatory, but the FAA has yet to
make it a requirement. A preliminary NTSB factsheet is available. In 2010, the NTSB
published a study done on 8,000 general aviation light aircraft. The study found that,
although aircraft equipped with glass cockpits had a lower overall accident rate, they also
had a larger chance of being involved in a fatal accident. The NTSB Chairman said in
response to the study,

"Training is clearly one of the key components to reducing the accident rate of light
planes equipped with glass cockpits, and this study clearly demonstrates the life and
death importance of appropriate training on these complex systems... While the
technological innovations and flight management tools that glass cockpit equipped
airplanes bring to the general aviation community should reduce the number of fatal

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accidents, we have not – unfortunately – seen that happen."

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Chapter 8

Autopilot

WT Autopilot panel of an older Boeing 747 aircraft

An autopilot is a mechanical, electrical, or hydraulic system used to guide a vehicle

without assistance from a human being. An autopilot can refer specifically to aircraft,
self-steering gear for boats, or auto guidance of space craft and missiles. The autopilot of
an aircraft is sometimes referred to as "George".

First autopilots
In the early days of aviation, aircraft required the continuous attention of a pilot in order
to fly safely. As aircraft range increased allowing flights of many hours, the constant
attention led to serious fatigue. An autopilot is designed to perform some of the tasks of
the pilot.

The first aircraft autopilot was developed by Sperry Corporation in 1912. The autopilot
connected a gyroscopic Heading indicator and attitude indicator to hydraulically operated
elevators and rudder (ailerons were not connected as wing dihedral was counted upon to

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produce the necessary roll stability.) It permitted the aircraft to fly straight and level on a
compass course without a pilot's attention, greatly reducing the pilot's workload.

Lawrence Sperry (the son of famous inventor Elmer Sperry) demonstrated it two years
later in 1914 at an aviation safety contest held in Paris. At the contest, Lawrence Sperry
demonstrated the credibility of the invention were shown by flying the aircraft with his
hands away from the controls and visible to onlookers of the contest. This autopilot
system was also capable of performing take-off and landing, and the French military
command showed immediate interest in the autopilot system. Wiley Post used a Sperry
autopilot system to fly alone around the world in less than eight days in 1933.

Further development of the autopilot were performed, such as improved control

algorithms and hydraulic servomechanisms. Also, inclusion of additional instrumentation
such as the radio-navigation aids made it possible to fly during night and in bad weather.
In 1947 a US Air Force C-53 made a transatlantic flight, including takeoff and landing,

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completely under the control of an autopilot.

In the early 1920s, the Standard Oil tanker J.A Moffet became the first ship to use an
autopilot.

Modern autopilots
Not all of the passenger aircraft flying today have an autopilot system. Older and smaller
general aviation aircraft especially are still hand-flown, while small airliners with fewer
than twenty seats may also be without an autopilot as they are used on short-duration
flights with two pilots. The installation of autopilots in aircraft with more than twenty
seats is generally made mandatory by international aviation regulations. There are three
levels of control in autopilots for smaller aircraft. A single-axis autopilot controls an
aircraft in the roll axis only; such autopilots are also known colloquially as "wing
levellers", reflecting their limitations. A two-axis autopilot controls an aircraft in the
pitch axis as well as roll, and may be little more than a "wing leveller" with limited pitch-
oscillation-correcting ability; or it may receive inputs from on-board radio navigation
systems to provide true automatic flight guidance once the aircraft has taken off until
shortly before landing; or its capabilities may lie somewhere between these two extremes.
A three-axis autopilot adds control in the yaw axis and is not required in many small
aircraft.

Autopilots in modern complex aircraft are three-axis and generally divide a flight into
taxi, takeoff, ascent, level, descent, approach and landing phases. Autopilots exist that
automate all of these flight phases except the taxiing. An autopilot-controlled landing on
a runway and controlling the aircraft on rollout (i.e. keeping it on the centre of the
runway) is known as a CAT IIIb landing or Autoland, available on many major airports'
runways today, especially at airports subject to adverse weather phenomena such as fog.
Landing, rollout and taxi control to the aircraft parking position is known as CAT IIIc.
This is not used to date but may be used in the future. An autopilot is often an integral
component of a Flight Management System.

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Modern autopilots use computer software to control the aircraft. The software reads the
aircraft's current position, and controls a Flight Control System to guide the aircraft. In
such a system, besides classic flight controls, many autopilots incorporate thrust control
capabilities that can control throttles to optimize the air-speed, and move fuel to different
tanks to balance the aircraft in an optimal attitude in the air. Although autopilots handle
new or dangerous situations inflexibly, they generally fly an aircraft with a lower fuel-
consumption than a human pilot.

The autopilot in a modern large aircraft typically reads its position and the aircraft's
attitude from an inertial guidance system. Inertial guidance systems accumulate errors
over time. They will incorporate error reduction systems such as the carousel system that
rotates once a minute so that any errors are dissipated in different directions and have an
overall nulling effect. Error in gyroscopes is known as drift. This is due to physical
properties within the system, be it mechanical or laser guided, that corrupt positional
data. The disagreements between the two are resolved with digital signal processing,

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most often a six-dimensional Kalman filter. The six dimensions are usually roll, pitch,
yaw, altitude, latitude and longitude. Aircraft may fly routes that have a required
performance factor, therefore the amount of error or actual performance factor must be
monitored in order to fly those particular routes. The longer the flight the more error
accumulates within the system. Radio aids such as DME, DME updates and GPS may be
used to correct the aircraft position.

Computer system details

The hardware of an autopilot varies from implementation to implementation, but is

generally designed with redundancy and reliability as foremost considerations. For
example, the Rockwell Collins AFDS-770 Autopilot Flight Director System used on the
Boeing 777, uses triplicated FCP-2002 microprocessors which have been formally
verified and are fabricated in a radiation resistant process.

Software and hardware in an autopilot is tightly controlled, and extensive test procedures
are put in place.

Some autopilots also use design diversity. In this safety feature, critical software
processes will not only run on separate computers and possibly even using different
architectures, but each computer will run software created by different engineering teams,
often being programmed in different programming languages. It is generally considered
unlikely that different engineering teams will make the same mistakes. As the software
becomes more expensive and complex, design diversity is becoming less common
because fewer engineering companies can afford it. The flight control computers on the
Space Shuttle uses this design: there are five computers, four of which redundantly run
identical software, and a fifth backup running software that was developed
independently. The software on the fifth system provides only the basic functions needed
to fly the Shuttle, further reducing any possible commonality with the software running
on the four primary systems.

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Categories
Instrument-aided landings are defined in categories by the International Civil Aviation
Organization. These are dependent upon the required visibility level and the degree to
which the landing can be conducted automatically without input by the pilot.

CAT I - This category permits pilots to land with a decision height of 200 ft (61 m) and a
forward visibility or Runway Visual Range (RVR) of 550 m. Simplex autopilots are
sufficient.

CAT II - This category permits pilots to land with a decision height between 200 ft and
100 ft (≈ 30 m) and a RVR of 300 m. Autopilots have a fail passive requirement.

CAT IIIa -This category permits pilots to land with a decision height as low as 50 ft (15

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m) and a RVR of 200 m. It needs a fail-passive autopilot. There must be only a 10−6
probability of landing outside the prescribed area.

CAT IIIb - As IIIa but with the addition of automatic roll out after touchdown
incorporated with the pilot taking control some distance along the runway. This category
permits pilots to land with a decision height less than 50 feet or no decision height and a
forward visibility of 250 ft (76 m, compare this to aircraft size, some of which are now
over 70 m long) or 300 ft (91 m) in the United States. For a landing-without-decision aid,
a fail-operational autopilot is needed. For this category some form of runway guidance
system is needed: at least fail-passive but it needs to be fail-operational for landing
without decision height or for RVR below 100 m.

CAT IIIc - As IIIb but without decision height or visibility minimums, also known as
"zero-zero".

Fail-passive autopilot: in case of failure, the aircraft stays in a controllable position and
the pilot can take control of it to go around or finish landing. It is usually a dual-channel
system.

Fail-operational autopilot: in case of a failure below alert height, the approach, flare and
landing can still be completed automatically. It is usually a triple-channel system or dual-
dual system.

Radio-controlled models
In radio-controlled modelling, and especially RC aircraft and helicopters, an autopilot is
usually a set of extra hardware and software that deals with pre-programming the model's
flight.

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Chapter 9

Electronic Flight Instrument System

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EFIS on an Airbus A380

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 WT EFIS on an Eclipse 500

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 WT Garmin G1000 on a Diamond DA42

An Electronic Flight Instrument System (EFIS) is a flight deck instrument display

system in which the display technology used is electronic rather than electromechanical.
EFIS normally consists of a primary flight display (PFD), multi-function display (MFD)
and Engine Indicating and Crew Alerting System (EICAS) display. Although cathode ray
tube (CRT) displays were used at first, liquid crystal displays (LCD) are now more
common.

The complex electromechanical attitude director indicator (ADI) and horizontal situation
indicator (HSI) were the first candidates for replacement by EFIS. However, there are
now few flight deck instruments for which no electronic display is available.

Overview
EFIS installations vary greatly. A light aircraft might be equipped with one display unit,
on which are displayed flight and navigation data. A wide-body aircraft is likely to have
six or more display units.

Typical EFIS displays and controls can be seen at this B737 technical information web
site. The equivalent electromechanical instruments are also shown here.

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An EFIS installation will have the following components:

• Displays
• Controls
• Data processors

A basic EFIS might have all these facilities in the one unit.

Display units
Primary Flight Display (PFD)

On the flight deck, the display units are the most obvious parts of an EFIS system, and
are the features which give rise to the name "glass cockpit". The display unit taking the

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place of the ADI is called the primary flight display (PFD). If a separate display replaces
the HSI, it is called the navigation display. The PFD displays all information critical to
flight, including calibrated airspeed, altitude, heading, attitude, vertical speed and yaw.
The PFD is designed to improve a pilot's situational awareness by integrating this
information into a single display instead of six different analog instruments, reducing the
amount of time necessary to monitor the instruments. PFDs also increase situational
awareness by alerting the aircrew to unusual or potentially hazardous conditions — for
example, low airspeed, high rate of descent — by changing the color or shape of the
display or by providing audio alerts.

The names Electronic Attitude Director Indicator and Electronic Horizontal Situation
Indicator are used by some manufacturers. However, a simulated ADI is only the
centerpiece of the PFD. Additional information is both superimposed on and arranged
around this graphic.

Multi-function displays can render a separate navigation display unnecessary. Another

option is to use one large screen to show both the PFD and navigation display.

The PFD and navigation display (and multi-function display, where fitted) are often
physically identical. The information displayed is determined by the system interfaces
where the display units are fitted. Thus, spares holding is simplified: the one display unit
can be fitted in any position.

LCD units generate less heat than CRTs; an advantage in a congested instrument panel.
They are also lighter, and occupy a lower volume.

Multi-Function Display (MFD) / Navigation Display (ND)

The MFD (Multi-Function Display) displays navigational and weather information from
multiple systems. MFDs are most frequently designed as "chart-centric", where the
aircrew can overlay different information over a map or chart. Examples of MFD overlay
information include the aircraft's current route plan, weather information from either on-

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board radar or lightning detection sensors or ground-based sensors, e.g., NEXRAD,
restricted airspace and aircraft traffic. The MFD can also be used to view other non-
overlay type of data (e.g., current route plan) and calculated overlay-type data, e.g., the
glide radius of the aircraft, given current location over terrain, winds, and aircraft speed
and altitude.

MFDs can also display information about aircraft systems, such as fuel and electrical
systems. As with the PFD, the MFD can change the color or shape of the data to alert the
aircrew to hazardous situations.

Engine Indications and Crew Alerting System (EICAS) / Electronic

Centralized Aircraft Monitoring (ECAM)

EICAS (Engine Indications and Crew Alerting System) displays information about the

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aircraft's systems, including its fuel, electrical and propulsion systems (engines). EICAS
displays are often designed to mimic traditional round gauges while also supplying digital
readouts of the parameters.

EICAS improves situational awareness by allowing the aircrew to view complex

information in a graphical format and also by alerting the crew to unusual or hazardous
situations. For example, if an engine begins to lose oil pressure, the EICAS might sound
an alert, switch the display to the page with the oil system information and outline the
low oil pressure data with a red box. Unlike traditional round gauges, many levels of
warnings and alarms can be set. Proper care must be taken when designing EICAS to
ensure that the aircrew are always provided with the most important information and not
overloaded with warnings or alarms.

ECAM is a similar system used by Airbus, which in addition to providing EICAS

functions also recommend remedial action.

Control panels
The pilots are provided with controls, with which they select display range and mode (for
example, map or compass rose) and enter data (such as selected heading).

Where inputs by the pilot are used by other equipment, data buses broadcast the pilot's
selections so that the pilot only needs to enter the selection once. For example, the pilot
selects the desired level-off altitude on a control unit. The EFIS repeats this selected
altitude on the PFD and by comparing it with the actual altitude (from the air data
computer) generates an altitude error display. This same altitude selection is used by the
automatic flight control system to level off, and by the altitude alerting system to provide
appropriate warnings.

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Data processors
The EFIS visual display is produced by the symbol generator. This receives data inputs
from the pilot, signals from sensors, and EFIS format selections made by the pilot. The
symbol generator can go by other names, such as display processing computer, display
electronics unit, etc.

The symbol generator does more than generate symbols. It has (at the least) monitoring
facilities, a graphics generator and a display driver. Inputs from sensors and controls
arrive via data buses, and are checked for validity. The required computations are
performed, and the graphics generator and display driver produce the inputs to the display
units.

Monitoring

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Like personal computers, flight instrument systems need power-on-self-test facilities and
continuous self-monitoring. Flight instrument systems, however, need additional
monitoring capabilities:

• Input validation — verify that each sensor is providing valid data

• Data comparison — cross check inputs from duplicated sensors
• Display monitoring — detect failures within the instrument system

Former practice

Traditional (electromechanical) displays were equipped with synchro mechanisms which

would transmit, to an instrument comparator, the pitch, roll and heading that were
actually being shown on the Captain's and First Officer's instruments. The comparator
warned of excessive differences between the Captain and First Officer displays. Even a
fault as far downstream as a jam in, say, the roll mechanism of an ADI would trigger a
comparator warning.

The instrument comparator thus provided both comparator monitoring and display
monitoring.

Comparator monitoring

With EFIS, the comparator function is as simple as ever. Is the roll data (bank angle)
from sensor 1 the same as the roll data from sensor 2? If not, put a warning caption (such
as CHECK ROLL) on both PFDs. Comparison monitors will give warnings for
airspeeds, pitch, roll and altitude indications. The more advanced EFIS systems, more
comparator monitors will be enabled.

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Display monitoring

An EFIS display allows no easy re-transmission of what is shown on the display. What is
required is a new approach to display monitoring that provides safety equivalent to that of
the traditional system. One solution is to keep the display unit as simple as possible, so
that it is unable to introduce errors. The display unit either works or does not work. A
failure is always obvious, never insidious. Now the monitoring function can be shifted
upstream to the output of the symbol generator.

In this technique, each symbol generator contains two display monitoring channels. One
channel, the internal, samples the output from its own symbol generator to the display
unit and computes, for example, what roll attitude should produce that indication. This
computed roll attitude is then compared with the roll attitude input to the symbol
generator from the INS or AHRS. Any difference has probably been introduced by faulty

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processing, and triggers a warning on the relevant display.

The external monitoring channel carries out the same check on the symbol generator on
the other side of the flight deck: the Captain's symbol generator checks the First Officer's,
the First Officer's checks the Captain's. Whichever symbol generator detects a fault, puts
up a warning on its own display.

The external monitoring channel also checks sensor inputs (to the symbol generator) for
reasonableness. A spurious input, such as a radio height greater than the radio altimeter's
maximum, results in a warning.

Human factors
Clutter

At various stages of a flight, a pilot uses different combinations of data. Ideally, only the
data in use would be displayed, but an electromechanical instrument has to be in view all
the time. To improve display clarity, intricate mechanisms are used on ADIs and HSIs to
remove superfluous indications temporarily, e.g., removing the glide slope scale when it
is not being used.

With EFIS, some indications, e.g., engine vibration, might not be displayed under normal
conditions. If limits are exceeded, then the reading will be displayed. In similar fashion,
EFIS is programmed to show the glideslope scale and pointer only during an ILS
approach.

If a failure of input data is detected, electromechanical instruments add yet another

indicator to the display. Typically, a bar is dropped across the erroneous data. EFIS, on
the other hand, removes invalid data from the display and substitutes an appropriate
warning.

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A de-clutter mode is activated automatically when the pilot's attention is required to be
focused on a specific item. For example, if the aircraft is pitched up or down above a
specified pitch, usually 30 to 60 degrees, the attitude indicator will de-clutter items from
sight until the pitch is brought to an acceptable level. This allows the pilot to focus on the
most important matter of aircraft control.

Color

Although color has long been used in traditional instruments, it is restricted to aiding in
identification of the data. There is no means of changing the color of any display
component.

This restriction has been lifted with EFIS. For example, as an aircraft approaches the
glideslope, a blue caption could indicate glide slope is armed; on capture the color might

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change to green.

On a typical EFIS system, the navigation needles are color coded to reflect the type of
navigation being used. Green needles are used for ground based navigation such as
VORs, Localizers and ILS systems. Magenta needles are used for GPS navigation.

Advantages
EFIS offers versatility by avoiding some of the physical limitations of traditional
instruments. Thus, the same display which shows a course deviation indicator, can be
switched to show the planned track provided by an area navigation or flight management
system. If desired, the weather radar picture can then be superimposed on the displayed
route.

The flexibility afforded by software modifications, minimises costs when new aircraft
equipment and new regulations are introduced. The EFIS system can be updated with
new software to extend its capabilities. Such updates introduced in the 1990s included
enhanced GPWS, and TCAS.

A degree of redundancy is available even with the simple two-screen EFIS installation.
Should the PFD fail, transfer switching repositions its vital information to the screen
normally occupied by the navigation display.

Advances in EFIS
In the late 1980s, EFIS became standard equipment on most Boeing and Airbus airliners,
and many business aircraft adopted EFIS in the 1990s.

Recent advances in computing power and reductions in the cost of liquid-crystal displays
and navigational sensors (such as GPS and Attitude and Heading Reference Systems)
have finally brought EFIS to general aviation aircraft. Notable examples are the Garmin
G1000 and Chelton Flight Systems EFIS-SV.

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Several EFIS manufacturers have focused on the experimental aircraft market, producing
EFIS and EICAS systems for as little as US$1,000. The low cost is possible for several
reasons, including steep drops in sensor prices and a lack of requirements to receive
Federal Aviation Administration certification. This latter point restricts their use to
experimental aircraft and certain other aircraft categories depending on local regulations.
Uncertified EFIS systems are also found in Sport Pilot category aircraft, including factory
built, microlight and ultralight aircraft. These systems can be fitted to certified aircraft in
some cases as secondary or backup systems depending on local aviation authorities rules
and regulations.

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Chapter 10

Pitot-Static System

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A pitot-static system is a system of pressure-sensitive instruments that is most often
used in aviation to determine an aircraft's airspeed, Mach number, altitude, and altitude
trend. A pitot-static system generally consists of a pitot tube, a static port, and the pitot-
static instruments. This equipment is used to measure the forces acting on a vehicle as a
function of the temperature, density, pressure and viscosity of the fluid in which it is
operating. Other instruments that might be connected are air data computers, flight data
recorders, altitude encoders, cabin pressurization controllers, and various airspeed
switches. Errors in pitot-static system readings can be extremely dangerous as the
information obtained from the pitot static system, such as altitude, is often critical to a
successful flight. Several commercial airline disasters have been traced to a failure of the
pitot-static system.

Diagram of a pitot-static system including the pitot tube, pitot-static instruments and
static port

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Pitot-static pressure

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Examples of pitot tube, static tube, and pitot-static tube.

The pitot-static system of instruments uses the principle of air pressure gradient. It works
by measuring pressures or pressure differences and using these values to assess the speed
and altitude. These pressures can be measured either from the static port (static pressure)
or the pitot tube (pitot pressure). The static pressure is used in all measurements, while
the pitot pressure is only used to determine airspeed.

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Pitot pressure

The pitot pressure is obtained from the pitot tube. The pitot pressure is a measure of ram
air pressure (the air pressure created by vehicle motion or the air ramming into the tube),
which, under ideal conditions, is equal to stagnation pressure, also called total pressure.
The pitot tube is most often located on the wing or front section of an aircraft, facing
forward, where its opening is exposed to the relative wind. By situating the pitot tube in
such a location, the ram air pressure is more accurately measured since it will be less
distorted by the aircraft's structure. When airspeed increases, the ram air pressure is
increased, which can be translated by the airspeed indicator.

Static pressure

The static pressure is obtained through a static port. The static port is most often a flush-

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mounted hole on the fuselage of an aircraft, and is located where it can access the air flow
in a relatively undisturbed area. Some aircraft may have a single static port, while others
may have more than one. In situations where an aircraft has more than one static port,
there is usually one located on each side of the fuselage. With this positioning, an average
pressure can be taken, which allows for more accurate readings in specific flight
situations. An alternative static port may be located inside the cabin of the aircraft as a
backup for when the external static port(s) are blocked. A pitot-static tube effectively
integrates the static ports into the pitot probe. It incorporates a second coaxial tube (or
tubes) with pressure sampling holes on the sides of the probe, outside the direct airflow,
to measure the static pressure.When aircraft climb, static pressure will decreases.

Multiple pressure

Some pitot-static systems incorporate single probes that contain multiple pressure-
transmitting ports that allow for the sensing of air pressure, angle of attack, and angle of
sideslip data. Depending on the design, such air data probes may be referred to as 5-hole
or 7-hole air data probes. Differential pressure sensing techniques can be used to produce
angle of attack and angle of sideslip indications.

Pitot-static instruments

Airspeed indicator diagram showing pressure sources from both the pitot tube and static
port

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The pitot-static system obtains pressures for interpretation by the pitot-static instruments.
While the explanations below explain traditional, mechanical instruments, many modern
aircraft use an air data computer (ADC) to calculate airspeed, rate of climb, altitude and
Mach number. In some aircraft, two ADCs receive total and static pressure from
independent pitot tubes and static ports, and the aircraft's flight data computer compares
the information from both computers and checks one against the other. There are also
"standby instruments", which are back-up pneumatic instruments employed in the case of
problems with the primary instruments.

Airspeed indicator

The airspeed indicator is connected to both the pitot and static pressure sources. The
difference between the pitot pressure and the static pressure is called "impact pressure".
The greater the impact pressure, the higher the airspeed reported. A traditional

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mechanical airspeed indicator contains a pressure diaphragm that is connected to the pitot
tube. The case around the diaphragm is airtight and is vented to the static port. The higher
the speed, the higher the ram pressure, the more pressure exerted on the diaphragm, and
the larger the needle movement through the mechanical linkage.

Diagram of an altimeter

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Altimeter

The pressure altimeter, also known as the barometric altimeter, is used to determine
changes in air pressure that occur as the aircraft's altitude changes. Pressure altimeters
must be calibrated prior to flight to register the pressure as an altitude above sea level.
The instrument case of the altimeter is airtight and has a vent to the static port. Inside the
instrument, there is a sealed aneroid barometer. As pressure in the case decreases, the
internal barometer expands, which is mechanically translated into a determination of
altitude. The reverse is true when descending from higher to lower altitudes.

Machmeter

Aircraft designed to operate at transonic or supersonic speeds will incorporate a

machmeter. The machmeter is used to show the ratio of true airspeed in relation to the

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speed of sound. Most supersonic aircraft are limited as to the maximum Mach number
they can fly, which is known as the "Mach limit". The Mach number is displayed on a
machmeter as a decimal fraction.

A vertical airspeed indicator

Vertical airspeed indicator

The variometer, also known as the vertical speed indicator (VSI) or the vertical velocity
indicator (VVI), is the pitot-static instrument used to determine whether or not an aircraft
is flying in level flight. The vertical airspeed specifically shows the rate of climb or the
rate of descent, which is measured in feet per minute or meters per second. The vertical
airspeed is measured through a mechanical linkage to a diaphragm located within the
instrument. The area surrounding the diaphragm is vented to the static port through a
calibrated leak (which also may be known as a "restricted diffuser"). When the aircraft

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begins to increase altitude, the diaphragm will begin to contract at a rate faster than that
of the calibrated leak, causing the needle to show a positive vertical speed. The reverse of
this situation is true when an aircraft is descending. The calibrated leak varies from
model to model, but the average time for the diaphragm to equalize pressure is between 6
and 9 seconds.

Pitot-static errors
There are several situations that can affect the accuracy of the pitot-static instruments.
Some of these involve failures of the pitot-static system itself—which may be classified
as "system malfunctions"—while others are the result of faulty instrument placement or
other environmental factors—which may be classified as "inherent errors".

System malfunctions

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Blocked pitot tube
A blocked pitot tube is a pitot-static problem that will only affect airspeed indicators. A
blocked pitot tube will cause the airspeed indicator to register an increase in airspeed
when the aircraft climbs, even though actual airspeed is constant. This is caused by the
pressure in the pitot system remaining constant when the atmospheric pressure (and static
pressure) are decreasing. In reverse, the airspeed indicator will show a decrease in
airspeed when the aircraft descends. The pitot tube is susceptible to becoming clogged by
ice, water, insects or some other obstruction. For this reason, aviation regulatory agencies
such as the U.S. Federal Aviation Administration (FAA) recommend that the pitot tube
be checked for obstructions prior to any flight. To prevent icing, many pitot tubes are
equipped with a heating element. A heated pitot tube is required in all aircraft certificated
for instrument flight except aircraft certificated as Experimental Amateur-Built.

Blocked static port

A blocked static port is a more serious situation because it affects all pitot-static
instruments. One of the most common causes of a blocked static port is airframe icing. A
blocked static port will cause the altimeter to freeze at a constant value, the altitude at
which the static port became blocked. The vertical speed indicator will become frozen at
zero and will not change at all, even if vertical airspeed increases or decreases. The
airspeed indicator will reverse the error that occurs with a clogged pitot tube and cause
the airspeed be read less than it actually is as the aircraft climbs. When the aircraft is
descending, the airspeed will be over-reported. In most aircraft with unpressurized
cabins, an alternative static source is available and can be toggled from within the cockpit
of the airplane.

Inherent errors

Inherent errors may fall into several categories, each affecting different instruments.
Density errors affect instruments reporting airspeed and altitude. This type of error is

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caused by variations of pressure and temperature in the atmosphere. A compressibility
error can arise because the impact pressure will cause the air to compress in the pitot
tube. At standard sea level pressure altitude the calibration equation correctly accounts
for the compression so there is no compressibility error at sea level. At higher altitudes
the compression is not correctly accounted for and will cause the instrument to read
greater than equivalent airspeed. A correction may be obtained from a chart.
Compressibility error becomes significant at altitudes above 10,000 feet (3,000 m) and at
airspeeds greater than 200 knots (370 km/h). Hysteresis is an error that is caused by
mechanical properties of the aneroid capsules located within the instruments. These
capsules, used to determine pressure differences, have physical properties that resist
change by retaining a given shape, even though the external forces may have changed.
Reversal errors are caused by a false static pressure reading. This false reading may be
caused by abnormally large changes in an aircraft's pitch. A large change in pitch will
cause a momentary showing of movement in the opposite direction. Reversal errors
primarily affect altimeters and vertical speed indicators.

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Position errors
Another class of inherent errors is that of position error. A position error is produced by
the aircraft's static pressure being different from the air pressure remote from the aircraft.
This error is caused by the air flowing past the static port at a speed different from the
aircraft's true airspeed. Position errors may provide positive or negative errors, depending
on one of several factors. These factors include airspeed, angle of attack, aircraft weight,
acceleration, aircraft configuration, and in the case of helicopters, rotor downwash. There
are two categories of position errors, which are "fixed errors" and "variable errors". Fixed
errors are defined as errors which are specific to a particular make of aircraft. Variable
errors are caused by external factors such as deformed panels obstructing the flow of air,
or particular situations which may overstress the aircraft.

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Chapter 11

Flight Data Recorder

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An example of an FDR (flight data recorder). (English translation: FLIGHT RECORDER
DO NOT OPEN)

Flight data recorder and cockpit voice recorder

A flight data recorder (FDR) (also ADR, for accident data recorder) is an electronic
device employed to record any instructions sent to any between electronic systems on an

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aircraft. It is a device used to record specific aircraft performance parameters. Another
kind of flight recorder is the cockpit voice recorder (CVR), which records conversation in
the cockpit, radio communications between the cockpit crew and others (including
conversation with air traffic control personnel), as well as ambient sounds. In some cases,
both functions have been combined into a single unit. The current applicable FAA TSO is
C124b titled Flight Data Recorder Systems.

Popularly referred to as a "black box", the data recorded by the FDR is used for accident
investigation, as well as for analyzing air safety issues, material degradation and engine
performance. Due to their importance in investigating accidents, these ICAO-regulated
devices are carefully engineered and stoutly constructed to withstand the force of a high
speed impact and the heat of an intense fire. Contrary to the "black box" reference, the
exterior of the FDR is coated with heat-resistant bright Red paint for high visibility in
wreckage, and the unit is usually mounted in the aircraft's empennage (tail section),
where it is more likely to survive a severe crash. Following an accident, the recovery of

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the FDR is usually a high priority for the investigating body, as analysis of the recorded
parameters can often detect and identify causes or contributing factors.

History
As with many successful devices, probably no single person could be credited with the
invention of the flight data recorder. However, one of the earliest and proven attempts
was made by François Hussenot and Paul Beaudouin in 1939 at the Marignane flight test
center, France, with their "type HB" flight recorder. This was an essentially photograph-
based device, because the record was made on a scrolling eight meters long by 88
milimeters wide photographic film. The latent image was made by a thin ray of light
deviated by a mirror tilted according to the magnitude of the data to record (altitude,
speed, etc). A pre-production run of 25 "HB" recorders was ordered in 1941 and HB
recorders remained in use in French test centers well into the seventies In 1947,
Hussenot, Beaudouin and associate Marcel Ramolfo founded the Société Française
d'Instruments de Mesure to market their design. This company went on becoming a major
supplier of data recorders, used not only aboard aircraft but also trains and other vehicles.
SFIM is today part of the Safran group and is still present on the flight recorder market.

The advantage of the film technology was that it could be easily developed afterwards
and provides a durable, visual feedback of the flight parameters without needing any
playback device. On the other hand, unlike magnetic bands or later flash memory-based
technology, a photographic film cannot be erased and recycled, and so it must be changed
periodically. As such, this technology was reserved for one-shot uses, mostly during
planned test flights; and it was not mounted aboard civilian aircraft during routine
commercial flights. Also, the cockpit conversation was not recorded.

Another form of flight data recorder was developed in the UK during World War II. Len
Harrison and Vic Husband developed a unit that could withstand a crash and fire to keep

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the flight data intact. This unit used copper foil as the recording medium with various
styli indicating various instruments / aircraft controls which indented the copper foil. The
copper foil was periodically advanced at set periods of time therefore giving a history of
the instruments /control settings of the aircraft. This unit was developed at Farnborough
for the Ministry of Aircraft Production. At the wars end the Ministry got Harrison and
Husband to sign over their invention to them and the Ministry patented it under British
patent 19330/45. This unit was the forerunner of today's black boxes being able to
withstand conditions that aircrew could not.

The first prototype coupled FDR/CVR designed with civilian aircraft in mind, for explicit
post-crash examination purposes, was produced in 1956 by Dr. David Warren of the
Defence Science and Technology Organisations', Aeronautical Research Laboratories in
Melbourne, Australia. In 1953 and 1954, a series of fatal accidents involving the de
Havilland Comet prompted the grounding of the entire fleet pending an investigation. Dr.
Warren, a chemist specializing in aircraft fuels, was involved in a professional committee

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discussing the possible causes. Since there had been neither witnesses nor survivors, Dr.
Warren conceived of a crash-survivable method to record the flight crew's conversation
(and other pre-crash data), reasoning they would greatly assist in determining a cause and
enabling the prevention of future, avoidable accidents of the same type.

Despite his 1954 report entitled "A Device for Assisting Investigation into Aircraft
Accidents" and a 1957 prototype FDR called "The ARL Flight Memory Unit", aviation
authorities from around the world were largely uninterested. This changed in 1958 when
Sir Robert Hardingham, the Secretary of the British Air Registration Board, visited the
ARL and was introduced to Warren.

1962 ARL encoder/recorder units by Lane Sear and Wally Boswell.

The Aeronautical Research Laboratory allocated Dr. Warren an engineering team to

develop the prototype to airborne stage. The team, consisting of electronics engineers
Lane Sear, Wally Boswell and Ken Fraser developed a working design incorporating a
fire and shockproof case, a reliable system for encoding and recording aircraft instrument
readings and voice on one wire, and a ground-based decoding device. The ARL system
became the "Red Egg", made by the British firm of S. Davall & Son. The "Red Egg" got
its name from its' shape and bright red color. In 1960, after the crash of an aircraft at
Mackay (Queensland), the inquiry judge strongly recommended that flight recorders be

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installed in all airliners. Australia then became the first country in the world to make
cockpit-voice recording compulsory.

The origin of the term "Black Box" is uncertain. One explanation comes from the early
film-based design of flight data recorders, which required the inside of the recorder to be
perfectly dark to prevent light leaks from corrupting the record, as in a photographer's
darkroom. Another explanation of the "black box" name came from a meeting about
Warren's "Red Egg", when afterwards a journalist told Dr. Warren, "This is a wonderful
black box." The unit itself was based on an EMI Minifon wire recorder (originally a
1950's espionage gadget from the west-German manufacterer Protona Monske) fitted into
a perspex box firmly screwed together.

Design

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The design of today's FDR is governed by the internationally recognized standards and
recommended practices relating to flight recorders which are contained in ICAO Annex 6
which makes reference to industry crashworthiness and fire protection specifications such
as those to be found in the European Organisation for Civil Aviation Equipment
documents EUROCAE ED55, ED56 fiken A and ED112 (Minimum Operational
Performance Specification for Crash Protected Airborne Recorder Systems). In the
United States, the Federal Aviation Administration (FAA) regulates all aspects of U.S.
aviation, and cites design requirements in their Technical Standard Order, based on the
EUROCAE documents (as do the aviation authorities of many other countries).

After the crash of Gol Transportes Aéreos Flight 1907, Brazilian Air Force personnel
recover the flight data recorder of PR-GTD, the Boeing 737-8EH used for the flight, in
the Amazon Rainforest in Mato Grosso, Brazil.

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Currently, EUROCAE specifies that a recorder must be able to withstand an acceleration
of 3400 g (33 km/s²) for 6.5 milliseconds. This is roughly equivalent to an impact
velocity of 270 knots (310 mph) and a deceleration or crushing distance of 450 cm.
Additionally, there are requirements for penetration resistance, static crush, high and low
temperature fires, deep sea pressure, sea water immersion, and fluid immersion.

Modern day FDRs receive inputs via specific data frames from the FDAU units. They
record significant flight parameters, including the control and actuator positions, engine
information and time of day. There are 88 parameters required as a minimum under
current U.S. federal regulations (only 29 were required until 2002), but some systems
monitor many more variables. Generally each parameter is recorded a few times per
second, though some units store "bursts" of data at a much higher frequency if the data
begins to change quickly. Most FDRs record approximately 17–25 hours worth of data in
a continuous loop. It is required by regulations, that an FDR verification check (readout)
is performed annually, in order to verify that all mandatory parameters are recorded.

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This has also given rise to flight data monitoring programs, whereby flights are analyzed
for optimum fuel consumption and dangerous flight crew habits. The data from the FDR
is transferred, in situ, to a solid state recording device and then periodically analyzed with
some of the same technology used for accident investigations.

FDRs are usually located in the rear of the aircraft, typically in the tail. In this position,
the entire front of the aircraft is expected to act as a "crush zone" to reduce the shock that
reaches the recorder. Also, modern FDRs are typically double wrapped, in strong
corrosion-resistant stainless steel or titanium, with high-temperature insulation inside.
They are usually bright orange. They are designed to emit a locator beacon for up to 30
days, and can operate immersed to a depth of up to 6,000 meters (20,000 ft).

Future devices
Since the recorders can sometimes be crushed into unreadable pieces, or even located in
deep water, some modern units are self-ejecting (taking advantage of kinetic energy at
impact to separate themselves from the aircraft) and also equipped with radio and sonar
beacons to aid in their location.

Alternatively, other aircraft such as the Space Shuttle Orbiter do not possess an FDR but
instead use down-links to transfer such data. This kind of system could potentially see
wider use in aviation in modified form.

On 19 July 2005, the Safe Aviation and Flight Enhancement Act of 2005 was introduced
and referred to the Committee on Transportation and Infrastructure of the U.S. House of
Representatives. This bill would require installation of a second cockpit voice recorder,
digital flight data recorder system and emergency locator transmitter that utilizes
combination deployable recorder technology in each commercial passenger aircraft,
currently required to carry each of those recorders. The deployable recorder system

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would be ejected from the rear of the aircraft at the moment of an accident. The bill was
referred to the Subcommittee on Aviation and has not progressed since.

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Chapter 12

Head-Up Display

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HUD of an F/A-18C

A head-up display or heads-up display (HUD) is any transparent display that presents
data without requiring users to look away from their usual viewpoints. The origin of the
name stems from the pilots being able to view information with heads "up" and looking
forward, instead of angled down looking at lower instruments.

Although they were initially developed for military aviation, HUDs are now used in
commercial aircraft, automobiles, and other applications.

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History

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Longitudinal cross-section of a German Revi C12/A, built in 1937

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 WT Copilot's HUD of a C-130J

The first HUDs were derived from static gun sight technology for military fighter aircraft.
Rudimentary HUDs projected a "pipper" to aid aircraft gun aiming. As HUDs advanced,
more (and more complex) information was added. HUDs soon displayed computed
gunnery solutions, using aircraft information such as airspeed and angle of attack, thus
greatly increasing the accuracy pilots could achieve in air to air battles. An early example
of what would now be termed a head-up display was the Projector System of the British
AI Mk VIII air interception radar fitted to some de Havilland Mosquito night fighters,
where the radar display was projected onto the aircraft's windscreen along with the
artificial horizon, allowing the pilots to perform interceptions without taking their eyes
from the windscreen.

HUD technology was next advanced in the Buccaneer, the prototype of which first flew
on 30 April 1958. The aircraft's design called for an attack sight that would provide
navigation and weapon release information for the low level attack mode. There was
fierce competition between supporters of the new HUD design and supporters of the old
electro-mechanical gunsight, with the HUD being described as a radical, even foolhardy
option. The Air Arm branch of the Ministry sponsored the development of a Strike Sight.
The Royal Aircraft Establishment (RAE) designed the equipment, it was built by Cintel,
and the system was first integrated in 1958. The Cintel HUD business was taken over by
Elliott Flight Automation and the Buccaneer HUD was manufactured and further

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developed continuing up to a Mark III version with a total of 375 systems made; it was
given a `fit and forget' title by the Royal Navy and it was still in service nearly 25 years
later. BAE Systems thus has a claim to the world's first Head Up Display in operational
service.

In the United Kingdom, it was soon noted that pilots flying with the new gun-sights were
becoming better at piloting their aircraft. At this point, the HUD expanded its purpose
beyond weapon aiming to general piloting. In the 1960s, French test-pilot Gilbert
Klopfstein created the first modern HUD and a standardized system of HUD symbols so
that pilots would only have to learn one system and could more easily transition between
aircraft. The modern HUD used in instrument flight rules approaches to landing was
developed in 1975. Klopfstein pioneered HUD technology in military fighter jets and
helicopters, aiming to centralize critical flight data within the pilot's field of vision. This
approach sought to increase the pilot's scan efficiency and reduce "task saturation" and
information overload.

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Use of HUDs then expanded beyond military aircraft. In the 1970s, the HUD was
introduced to commercial aviation, and in 1988, the Oldsmobile Cutlass Supreme became
the first production car with a head-up display.

Until a few years ago, the Embraer 190 and Boeing 737 New Generation Aircraft (737-
600,700,800, and 900 series) were the only commercial passenger aircraft available with
HUDs. However, the technology is becoming more common with aircraft such as the
Canadair RJ, Airbus A318 and several business jets featuring the displays. HUDs have
become standard equipment on the Boeing 787. Furthermore, the Airbus A320, A330,
A340 and A380 families are currently undergoing the certification process for a HUD.
HUDs are also added to the Space Shuttle orbiter.

Types
Helmet mounted displays (HMD) are technically a form of HUD, the distinction being
that they feature a display element that moves with the orientation of the users' heads
relative the airframe.

Many modern fighters (such as F/A-18, F-22, Eurofighter) use both a HUD and HMD
concurrently. The F-35 Lightning II was designed without a HUD, relying solely on the
HMD, making it the first modern military fighter not to have a fixed HUD.

Generations
HUDs are split into four generations reflecting the technology used to generate the
images.

• First Generation—Use a CRT to generate an image on a phosphor screen, having

the disadvantage of the phosphor screen coating degrading over time. The
majority of HUDs in operation today are of this type.

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 • Second Generation—Use a solid state light source, for example LED, which is
modulated by an LCD screen to display an image. These systems do not fade or
require the high voltages of first generation systems. These systems are on
commercial aircraft.
• Third Generation—Use optical waveguides to produce images directly in the
combiner rather than use a projection system.
• Fourth Generation—Use a scanning laser to display images and even video
imagery on a clear transparent medium.

Newer micro-display imaging technologies are being introduced, including liquid crystal
display (LCD), liquid crystal on silicon (LCoS), digital micro-mirrors (DMD), and
organic light-emitting diode (OLED).

Design factors

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There are several factors that engineers must consider when designing a HUD:

• field of vision—Because the human eyes are separated, each eye receives a
different image. To prevent a pilots' eyes from having to change focus between
the outside world and the display of the HUD, the display is collimated (focused
at infinity). In automobiles the display is generally focused near the distance to
the bumper.
• eyebox—displays can only be viewed while the viewers' eyes are within a three-
dimensional area called the head motion box or eyebox. Modern HUD eyeboxes
are usually about 5 by 3 by 6 inches. This allows viewers some freedom of head
movement. It also allows pilots the ability to view the entire display as long as
one of their eyes is inside the eyebox.
• luminance/contrast—displays must be adjustable in luminance and contrast to
account for ambient lighting, which can vary widely (e.g., from the glare of bright
clouds to moonless night approaches to minimally lit fields).
• display accuracy—aircraft HUD components must be very accurately aligned
with the aircraft's three axes – a process called boresighting – so that displayed
data conforms to reality typically with an accuracy of ±7.0 milliradians. In this
case the word "conform" means, "when an object is projected on the combiner
and the actual object is visible, they will be aligned". This allows the display to
show the pilot exactly where the artificial horizon is, as well as the aircraft's
projected path with great accuracy. When Enhanced Vision is used, for example,
the display of runway lights must be aligned with the actual runway lights when
the real lights become visible. Boresighting is done during the aircraft's building
process and can also be performed in the field on many aircraft.
• compatibility—HUD components must be compatible with other avionics,
displays, etc.

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Components
A typical HUD contains three primary components: a combiner, projector unit, and video
generation computer.

The combiner is the part of the unit located directly in front of the pilot, providing the
surface onto which the information is projected for view. Combiners can be concave or
flat, and have a special coating that reflects the monochromatic light projected onto it
from the projector unit while allowing all other wavelengths of light to pass through. On
some aircraft the combiners are easily removable (or can be rotated out of the way) by
aircrew.

The projection unit projects the image onto the combiner for the pilot to view. In early
HUDs, this was done using refraction, although modern HUDs use reflection. Projection

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units use Cathode Ray Tubes, light emitting diodes, or liquid crystal displays to project
the image. Projection units can be either below (as with most fighter aircraft) or above (as
with transport/commercial aircraft) combiners.

The computer is usually located with the other avionics equipment and provides the
interface between the HUD (i.e. the projection unit) and the systems/data to be displayed.
On aircraft, these computers are typically dual independent redundant systems. They
receive input directly from the sensors (pitot-static, gyroscopic, navigation, etc.) aboard
the aircraft and perform their own computations rather than receiving previously
computed data from the flight computers. Computers are integrated with the aircraft's
systems and allow connectivity onto several different data buses such as the ARINC 429,
ARINC 629, and MIL-STD-1553.

Aircraft
Displayed data

Typical aircraft HUDs display airspeed, altitude, a horizon line, heading, turn/bank and
slip/skid indicators. These instruments are the minimum required by 14 CFR Part 91.

Other symbols and data are also available in some HUDs:

• boresight or waterline symbol—is fixed on the display and shows where the nose
of the aircraft is actually pointing.
• flight path vector (FPV) or velocity vector symbol—shows where the aircraft is
actually going, the sum of all forces acting on the aircraft. For example, if the
aircraft is pitched up but is losing energy, then the FPV symbol will be below the
horizon even though the boresight symbol is above the horizon. During approach
and landing, a pilot can fly the approach by keeping the FPV symbol at the
desired descent angle and touchdown point on the runway.
• acceleration indicator or energy cue—typically to the left of the FPV symbol, it is
above it if the aircraft is accelerating, and below the FPV symbol if decelerating.

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 • angle of attack indicator—shows the wing's angle relative to the airflow, often
displayed as "α".
• navigation data and symbols—for approaches and landings, the flight guidance
systems can provide visual cues based on navigation aids such as an Instrument
Landing System or augmented Global Positioning System such as the Wide Area
Augmentation System. Typically this is a circle which fits inside the flight path
vector symbol. Pilots can fly along the correct flight path by "flying to" the
guidance cue.

Since being introduced on HUDs, both the FPV and acceleration symbols are becoming
standard on head-down displays (HDD). The actual form of the FPV symbol on an HDD
is not standardized but is usually a simple aircraft drawing, such as a circle with two short
angled lines, (180 ± 30 degrees) and "wings" on the ends of the descending line. Keeping
the FPV on the horizon allows the pilot to fly level turns in various angles of bank.

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Military aircraft specific applications

FA-18 HUD while engaged in a dogfight

In addition to the generic information described above, military applications include

weapons system and sensor data such as:

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 • target designation (TD) indicator—places a cue over an air or ground target
(which is typically derived from radar or inertial navigation system data).
• Vc—closing velocity with target.
• Range—to target, waypoint, etc.
• Launch Acceptability Region (LAR)—displays when an air-to-air or air-to-ground
weapon can be successfully launched to reach a specified target.
• weapon seeker or sensor line of sight—shows where a seeker or sensor is
pointing.
• weapon status—includes type and number of weapons selected, available, arming,
etc.

VTOL/STOL approaches and landings

During the 1980s, the military tested the use of HUDs in vertical take off and landings

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(VTOL) and short take off and landing (STOL) aircraft. A HUD format was developed at
NASA Ames Research Center to provide pilots of V/STOL aircraft with complete flight
guidance and control information for Category-IIIC terminal-area flight operations. This
includes a large variety of flight operations, from STOL flights on land-based runways to
VTOL operations on aircraft carriers. The principal features of this display format are the
integration of the flightpath and pursuit guidance information into a narrow field of view,
easily assimilated by the pilot with a single glance, and the superposition of vertical and
horizontal situation information. The display is a derivative of a successful design
developed for conventional transport aircraft.

Civil aircraft specific applications

The cockpit of NASA's Gulfstream GV with a synthetic vision system display. Several
different HUD elements are visible, including the combiner in front of the pilot. The
green 'glare' in the lower right corner of the combiner is a result of backscatter of off-axis
light from the projection unit, as well as reflection from ambient light in the flight deck.
Because the combiner has a pronounced vertical and horizontal curve to help focus the
image, compensation is applied to the display symbols to make them appear flat when
projected onto the curved surface. When not in use, this combiner can swing up and lock

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in a stowed position. The Projector Unit in the Gulfstream GV image would be directly
above the pilot's head. In smaller aircraft the design of the projection unit can present
interesting spacing and placement issues, as room must be left for the pilot not only when
normally seated but also during turbulence and when getting in and out of the seat.

The use of head-up displays allows commercial aircraft substantial flexibility in their
operations. Systems have been approved which allow reduced-visibility takeoffs and
landings, as well as full Category IIIc landings. Studies have shown that the use of a
HUD during landings decreases the lateral deviation from centerline in all landing
conditions, although the touchdown point along the centerline is not changed.

Enhanced flight vision systems

In more advanced systems, such as the FAA-labeled Enhanced Flight Vision System, a

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real-world visual image can be overlaid onto the combiner. Typically an infrared camera
(either single or multi-band) is installed in the nose of the aircraft to display a conformed
image to the pilot. EVS Enhanced Vision System is an industry accepted term which the
FAA decided not to use because "the FAA believes [it] could be confused with the
system definition and operational concept found in 91.175(l) and (m)" In one EVS
installation, the camera is actually installed at the top of the vertical stabilizer rather than
"as close as practical to the pilots eye position". When used with a HUD however, the
camera must be mounted as close as possible to the pilots eye point as the image is
expected to "overlay" the real world as the pilot looks through the combiner.

"Registration," or the accurate overlay of the EVS image with the real world image, is
one feature closely examined by authorities prior to approval of a HUD based EVS. This
is because of the importance of the HUD matching the real world.

While the EVS display can greatly help, the FAA has only relaxed operating regulations
so an aircraft with EVS can perform a CATEGORY I approach to CATEGORY II
minimums. In all other cases the flight crew must comply with all "unaided" visual
restrictions. (For example if the runway visibility is restricted because of fog, even
though EVS may provide a clear visual image it is not appropriate (or actually legal) to
maneuver the aircraft using only the EVS below 100' agl.)

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Synthetic vision systems

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A synthetic vision system display

HUD systems are also being designed to utilize a synthetic vision system (SVS), which
use terrain databases to create realistic and intuitive views of the outside world.

In SVS image to the right, immediately visible indicators include the airspeed tape on the
left, altitude tape on the right, and turn/bank/slip/skid displays at the top center. The
boresight symbol (-v-) is in the center and directly below that is the flight path vector
symbol (the circle with short wings and a vertical stabilizer). The horizon line is visible
running across the display with a break at the center, and directly to the left are the
numbers at ±10 degrees with a short line at ±5 degrees (The +5 degree line is easier to
see) which, along with the horizon line, show the pitch of the aircraft.

The aircraft in the image is wings level (i.e. the flight path vector symbol is flat relative
to the horizon line and there is zero roll on the turn/bank indicator). Airspeed is 140
knots, altitude is 9450 feet, heading is 343 degrees (the number below the turn/bank
indicator). Close inspection of the image shows a small purple circle which is displaced
from the Flight Path Vector slightly to the lower right. This is the guidance cue coming
from the Flight Guidance System. When stabilized on the approach, this purple symbol
should be centered within the FPV.

The terrain is entirely computer generated from a high resolution terrain database.

In some systems, the SVS will calculate the aircraft's current flight path, or possible flight
path (based on an aircraft performance model, the aircraft's current energy, and
surrounding terrain) and then turn any obstructions red to alert the flight crew. Such a
system could have prevented the crash of American Airlines Flight 965 in 1995.

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On the left side of the display is an SVS-unique symbol, with the appearance of a purple,
dimishing sideways ladder, and which continues on the right of the display. The two lines
define a "tunnel in the sky". This symbol defines the desired trajectory of the aircraft in
three dimensions. For example, if the pilot had selected an airport to the left, then this
symbol would curve off to the left and down. If the pilot keeps the flight path vector
alongside the trajectory symbol, the craft will fly the optimum path. This path would be
based on information stored in the Flight Management System's data base and would
show the FAA-approved approach for that airport.

The tunnel in the sky can also greatly assist the pilot when more precise four dimensional
flying is required, such as the decreased vertical or horizontal clearance requirements of
RNP. Under such conditions the pilot is given a graphical depiction of where the aircraft
should be and where it should be going rather than the pilot having to mentally integrate
altitude, airspeed, heading, energy and longitude and latitude to correctly fly the aircraft.

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Automobiles

HUD in a BMW E60

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 WT HUD in a Pontiac Bonneville showing a speed of 47 mph

General Motors began using head-up displays in 1988 with the first color display
appearing in 2001 on the Corvette. In 2003, BMW became the first European
manufacturer to offer HUDs. The displays are becoming increasingly available in
production cars, and usually offer speedometer, tachometer, and navigation system
displays. Night vision information is also displayed via HUD on certain General Motors,
Honda, Toyota and Lexus vehicles. Other manufactures such as Citroën, Saab, and
Nissan currently offer some form of HUD system. Motorcycle helmet HUDs are also
commercially available.

Add-on HUD systems also exist, projecting the display onto a glass combiner mounted
on the windshield. These systems have been marketed to police agencies for use with in-
vehicle computers.

Developmental / experimental uses

HUDs have been proposed or are being experimentally developed for a number of other
applications. In the military, a HUD can be used to overlay tactical information such as
the output of a laser rangefinder or squadmate locations to infantrymen. A prototype
HUD has also been developed that displays information on the inside of a swimmer's
goggles or of a scuba diver's mask. A group of Electrical Engineering students from the
University of Massachusetts Amherst are integrating technologies in order to develop an
affordable Personal Head-Up Display. One such design is a HUD in skiing goggles.

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HUD systems that project information directly onto the wearer's retina with a low-
powered laser (virtual retinal display) are also in experimentation. This kind of head-up
display has been common in science fiction movies for decades, notably in Terminator
and RoboCop.

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Chapter 13

Annunciator Panel

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An annunciator panel is a group of lights used as a central indicator of status of
equipment or systems in an aircraft, industrial process, building or other installation.
Usually the annunciator panel includes a main warning lamp or audible signal to draw the
attention of operating personnel to the annunciator panel for abnormal events or
conditions.

Aviation

(above) The annunciator panel of a Cessna 441 aircraft. The illuminated annunciators are
those that are normally lit when the engines are not running, plus one annunciating that

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the aircraft's door is not locked. (below) Close-up view of the left module of the
annunciator panel in 'test' mode

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In the aircraft industry, annunciator panels are groupings of annunciator lights that
indicate status of the aircraft's subsystems. The lights are usually accompanied with a test
switch, which when pressed illuminates all the lights to confirm they are in working
order. More advanced modern aircraft replaces these with the integrated electronic
Engine Indicating and Crew Alerting System or Electronic Centralised Aircraft Monitor.

On this aircraft overhead panel, the pilot is pressing the test switch. You can also see how
the lights are grouped together with their associated systems into various panels of lights.

The following colours are normally utilised with the following meanings:

• Red - Warning, this systems condition is critical and requires immediate attention
(such as an engine fire, hydraulic pump failure)
• Orange/Yellow - Caution, this system requires timely attention or may do so in
the future (ice detected, fuel imbalance)
• Green - Advisory/Indication, a system is in use or ready for operation (such as
landing gear down and locked, APU operating)
• White/blue - Advisory/Indication, a system is in use (seatbelt signs on, anti-ice
system in-use, landing lights on)

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On occasion, the annunciator panel will display warnings or cautions that are not
necessarily indicative of a problem; for example, a Cessna 172 on its after-landing roll
will often flicker the "Volts" warning simply due to the idle throttle position and
therefore the lower voltage output of the alternator to the aircraft's electrical system.

More complicated aircraft will feature "Master Warning" and "Master Caution"
lights/switches. In the event of any red or yellow annunciator being activated, the yellow
or red master light, usually located elsewhere in the pilots line of sight will illuminate, in
most installations they flash and an audible alert will accompany them. These "masters"
will not stop flashing until they have been acknowledged, usually by pressing the light
itself and in some cases the audible alert will also continue until this acknowledgement.

In this aircraft cockpit, the annunciator panel is clearly visible in the centre of the panel
(just to the left and below the big red handle/lever), displaying a variety of warnings of
differing severity. Directly below the windscreen area, on both the left and right side of

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the picture, is a large red light with a large yellow one below it. These are the master
warning and master caution lights/switches.

Process control
In industrial process control, an annunciator panel is a system to alert operators of alarm
conditions in the plant. Multiple back-lit windows are provided, each engraved with the
name of a process alarm. Lamps in each window are controlled by hard-wired switches in
the plant, arranged to operate when a process condition enters an abnormal state (such as
high temperature, low pressure, loss of cooling water flow, or many others). Single point
or multipoint alarm logic modules operate the window lights based on a preselected ISA
18.1 or custom sequence.

In one common alarm sequence, the light in a window will flash and a bell or horn will
sound to attract the operator's attention when the alarm condition is detected. The
operator can silence the alarm with a button, and the window will remain lit as long as the
process is in the alarm state. When the alarm clears (process condition returns to normal),
the lamps in the window go out.

Annunciator panels were relatively costly to install in a plant because they had dedicated
wiring to the alarm initiating devices in the process plant. Since incandescent lamps were
used, a lamp test button was always provided to allow early detection of failed lamps.
Modern electronic distributed control systems usually require less wiring since the
process signals can be monitored within the control system, and the engraved windows
are replaced by alaphanumeric displays on a computer monitor.

Behavior of alarm systems, and colors used to indicate alarms, are standardized.
Standards such as ISA 18.1 or EN 60073 simplify purchase of systems and training of
operators by giving standard alarm sequences.

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Obsolescence and revival

The introduction of computer monitor based control systems during the 1980s and 1990s
saw a wholesale absorption of alarm window displays on to the computer screen. This
created a down-turn in the sales of the conventional Alarm Annunciator systems and
many of the companies manufacturing these alarm annunciator products were either sold
off or went out of business. This has left today a major obsolescence support problem for
customers who are still using these Alarm Annunciator systems as part of their safety
systems.

Over the last five years the Alarm Annunciator has seen a resurgence in popularity
especially for use in IEC61508 SIL 1 and SHE (Safety Health and Environmental) alarm
monitoring applications. The modern trend is to identify critical alarms and return them
from the computer screen to discrete alarm windows. This is being done for two reasons.

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Firstly, alarm annunciators offer pattern recognition to the operators in the form of LED
alarm fascias instead of just providing an exhaustive list of alarms and events which the
operators have to scroll through and in some instances alarms can be overlooked.
Secondly, the analysis of plant failure modes is leading to the separation of critical alarm
monitoring and process control systems for safety reasons.

Discrete annunciators vs SCADA alarm systems

Some time ago SCADA systems were considered the preferred alternative to discrete
annunciators. A software-based solution, with almost endless ability to analyze, present
and process alarms, has the potential for replacing discrete alarms switches altogether.

However, software carries its own reliability risks. Reliance on a software program to
trigger an alarm assumes that the analog signal, the programmer's logic code and HMI,
the PLC and/or PC running the programs, and the interaction between all of the above,
are all entirely trustworthy. This is exacerbated by frequently changing computer
hardware & firmware platforms and the need to modify existing software.

Fire alarm panel

In large buildings, a central fire alarm annunciator panel is located where it is accessible
to fire-fighting crews. The annunciator panel will indicate the zone and approximate
physical location of the source of a fire alarm in the building. The annunciator will also
include lamps and audible warning devices to indicate failures of alarm circuits. In a
large building such as an office tower or hotel, the fire annunciator may also be
associated with a control panel for building ventilation systems, and may also include
emergency communication systems for the building.

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Chapter 14

Avionics

Avionics is a portmanteau of "aviation" and "electronics". It comprises electronic

systems for use on aircraft, artificial satellites and spacecraft, comprising com-

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munications, navigation and the display and management of multiple systems. It also
includes the hundreds of systems that are fitted to aircraft to meet individual roles, these
can be as simple as a search light for a police helicopter or as complicated as the tactical
system for an Airborne Early Warning platform.

History
The term avionics is believed to have been coined by journalist Philip J. Klass. Avionics
was pioneered in the 1970s, driven by military need rather than civil airliner
development. Military aircraft had become flying sensor platforms, and making large
amounts of electronic equipment work together had become the new challenge. Today,
avionics as used in military aircraft almost always forms the biggest part of any
development budget. Aircraft like the F-15E and the now retired F-14 have roughly 80
percent of their budget spent on avionics. Most modern helicopters now have budget
splits of 60/40 in favour of avionics.

The civilian market has also seen a growth in cost of avionics. Flight control systems
(fly-by-wire) and new navigation needs brought on by tighter airspaces, have pushed up
development costs. The major change has been the recent boom in consumer flying. As
more people begin to use planes as their primary method of transportation, more
elaborate methods of controlling aircraft safely in these high restrictive airspaces have
been invented.

Main categories
Aircraft avionics

The cockpit of an aircraft is a major location for avionic equipment, including control,
monitoring, communication, navigation, weather, and anti-collision systems. The
majority of aircraft drive their avionics using 14 or 28 volt DC electrical systems;
however, large, more sophisticated aircraft (such as airliners or military combat aircraft)
have AC systems operating at 400 Hz,& 115 volt rather than the more common 50 and

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60 Hz of North American home electrical devices. There are several major vendors of
flight avionics, including Honeywell (which now owns Bendix/King, Baker Electronics,
Allied Signal, etc..]), Rockwell Collins, Thales Group, Garmin, Avidyne Corporation,
and Narco Avionics.

Communications
Communications connect the flight deck to the ground, and the flight deck to the
passengers. On board communications are provided by public address systems and
aircraft intercoms.

The VHF aviation communication system works on the Airband of 118.000 MHz to
136.975 MHz. Each channel is spaced from the adjacent by 8.33 kHz.And VHF is also
used for line of sight communication as, aircraft to aircraft , aircraft to atc for short

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distances.There are three VHF sys. Amplitude Modulation (AM) is used. The
conversation is performed by simplex mode. Aircraft communication can also take place
using HF (especially for trans-oceanic flights) or satellite communication.

Navigation
Navigation is the determination of position and direction on or above the surface of the
Earth. Avionics can use satellite-based systems (such as GPS and WAAS), ground-based
systems (such as VOR or LORAN), or any combination thereof. Older avionics required
a pilot or navigator to plot the intersection of signals on a paper map to determine an
aircraft's location; modern systems calculate the position automatically and display it to
the flight crew on moving map displays.

Monitoring
Glass cockpits started to come into being with the Gulfstream G-IV private jet in 1985.
Display systems display sensor data that allows the aircraft to fly safely. Much
information that used to be displayed using mechanical gauges appears on electronic
displays in newer aircraft.

Aircraft flight control systems

Airplanes and helicopters have means of automatically controlling flight. They reduce
pilot workload at important times (like during landing, or in hover), and they make these
actions safer by 'removing' pilot error. The first simple auto-pilots were used to control
heading and altitude and had limited authority on things like thrust and flight control
surfaces. In helicopters, auto stabilization was used in a similar way. The old systems
were electromechanical in nature until very recently.

The advent of fly by wire and electro actuated flight surfaces (rather than the traditional
hydraulic) has increased safety. As with displays and instruments, critical devices which

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were electro-mechanical had a finite life. With safety critical systems, the software is
very strictly tested.

Collision-avoidance systems
To supplement air traffic control, most large transport aircraft and many smaller ones use
a TCAS (Traffic Alert and Collision Avoidance System), which can detect the location of
nearby aircraft, and provide instructions for avoiding a midair collision. Smaller aircraft
may use simpler traffic alerting systems such as TPAS, which are passive (they do not
actively interrogate the transponders of other aircraft) and do not provide advisories for
conflict resolution.

To help avoid collision with terrain, (CFIT) aircraft use systems such as ground-
proximity warning systems (GPWS), radar altimeter being the key element in GPWS.

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One of the major weaknesses of (GPWS) is the lack of "look-ahead" information as it
only provides altitude above terrain "look-down". In order to overcome such weakness,
modern aircraft use the Terrain Awareness Warning System (TAWS).

Weather systems
Weather systems such as weather radar (typically Arinc 708 on commercial aircraft) and
lightning detectors are important for aircraft flying at night or in Instrument
meteorological conditions, where it is not possible for pilots to see the weather ahead.
Heavy precipitation (as sensed by radar) or severe turbulence (as sensed by lightning
activity) are both indications of strong convective activity and severe turbulence, and
weather systems allow pilots to deviate around these areas.

Lightning detectors like the Stormscope or Strikefinder have become inexpensive enough
that they are practical for light aircraft. In addition to radar and lightning detection,
observations and extended radar pictures (such as NEXRAD) are now available through
satellite data connections, allowing pilots to see weather conditions far beyond the range
of their own in-flight systems. Modern displays allow weather information to be
integrated with moving maps, terrain, traffic, etc. onto a single screen, greatly simplifying
navigation.

Aircraft management Systems

There has been a progression towards centralized control of the multiple complex
systems fitted to aircraft, including engine monitoring and management. Health and
Usage Monitoring Systems (HUMS) are integrated with aircraft management computers
to allow maintainers early warnings of parts that will need replacement.

The Integrated Modular Avionics concept proposes an integrated architecture with

application software portable across an assembly of common hardware modules. It has
been used in Fourth generation jet fighters and the latests generation of Airliners.

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Mission or tactical avionics

Military aircraft have been designed either to deliver a weapon or to be the eyes and ears
of other weapon systems. The vast array of sensors available to the military is used for
whatever tactical means required. As with aircraft management, the bigger sensor
platforms (like the E-3D, JSTARS, ASTOR, Nimrod MRA4, Merlin HM Mk 1) have
mission management computers.

Police and EMS aircraft also carry sophisticated tactical sensors.

Military communications
While aircraft communications provide the backbone for safe flight, the tactical systems
are designed to withstand the rigours of the battle field. UHF, VHF Tactical (30-88 MHz)

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and SatCom systems combined with ECCM methods, and cryptography secure the
communications. Data links like Link 11, 16, 22 and BOWMAN, JTRS and even TETRA
provide the means of transmitting data (such as images, targeting information etc.).

Radar
Airborne radar was one of the first tactical sensors. The benefit of altitude providing
range has meant a significant focus on airborne radar technologies. Radars include
Airborne Early Warning (AEW), Anti-Submarine Warfare (ASW), and even Weather
radar (Arinc 708) and ground tracking/proximity radar.

The military uses radar in fast jets to help pilots fly at low levels. While the civil market
has had weather radar for a while, there are strict rules about using it to navigate the
aircraft.

Sonar
Dipping sonar fitted to a range of military helicopters allows the helicopter to protect
shipping assets from submarines or surface threats. Maritime support aircraft can drop
active and passive sonar devices (Sonobuoys) and these are also used to determine the
location of hostile submarines.

Electro-Optics
Electro-optic systems include Forward Looking Infrared (FLIR), and Passive Infrared
Devices (PIDS). These are all used to provide imagery to crews. This imagery is used for
everything from Search and Rescue through to acquiring better resolution on a target.

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ESM/DAS
Electronic support measures and defensive aids are used extensively to gather
information about threats or possible threats. They can be used to launch devices (in
some cases automatically) to counter direct threats against the aircraft. They are also used
to determine the state of a threat and identify it.

Aircraft Networks

The avionics systems in military, commercial and advanced models of civilian aircraft
are interconnected using an avionics databus. Common avionics databus protocols, with
their primary application, include:

• Aircraft Data Network (ADN): Ethernet derivative for Commercial Aircraft

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• Avionics Full-Duplex Switched Ethernet (AFDX): Specific implementation of
ARINC 664 (ADN) for Commercial Aircraft
• ARINC 429: Generic Medium-Speed Data Sharing for Private and Commercial
Aircraft
• ARINC 664
• ARINC 629: Commercial Aircraft (Boeing 777)
• ARINC 708: Weather Radar for Commercial Aircraft
• ARINC 717: Flight Data Recorder for Commercial Aircraft
• IEEE 1394b: Military Aircraft
• MIL-STD-1553: Military Aircraft
• MIL-STD-1760: Military Aircraft
• TTP - Time-Triggered Protocol: Boeing 787 Dreamliner, Airbus A380, Fly-By-
Wire Actuation Platforms from Parker Aerospace
• TTEthernet - Time-Triggered Ethernet: NASA Orion Spacecraft

Police and Air Ambulance

Police and EMS aircraft (mostly helicopters) are now a significant market. Military
aircraft are often now built with a role available to assist in civil disobedience. Police
helicopters are almost always fitted with video/FLIR systems to allow them to track
suspects. They can also be fitted with searchlights and loudspeakers.

EMS and police helicopters will be required to fly in unpleasant conditions, this may
require more aircraft sensors, some of which were until recently considered purely for
military aircraft.

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