LOSSES IN OPTICAL FIBERS

Single Mode Fiber

• Avoids the delay between different rays
• Only one mode (ray) is propagated
• Thus, we need to select the right relationship between the
wavelength and core diameter

1/2
2p a ×n1(2D )
Note that modes propagating near
The critical wavelength (cutoff) will not
l =
c
Be fully guided within the core. 2.405
NOTE: Single mode operation (with step index) occurs only above λc.
2 2
n1 - n2
D= 2
;
2n1
Single Mode Fiber - Example
Some Refractive Indices
• Air-1.003
• Water-1.33
• Glass-1.52 to 1.89
• Diamond-2.42
Attenuation
• Transmission loss is the main limiting factor in optical
communication systems
• Limiting how far the signal can be transmitted
• Transmission loss in fiber is much less than copper (<5
dB/km)
• Loss in dB = 10log Pi / Po
• Pi/Po = 10 ^(dB/10)
• Attenuation (dB) = αL = 10log(Pi/Po) ;
• Loss per unit length is represented by α is in dB/km
• Also represented as follow (z=length from the source, and P(z) is
the power at point z.
Absorption losses
Absorption in optical fibers is explained by three factors:
• Imperfections in the atomic structure of the fiber material
Imperfections in the atomic structure induce absorption by the
presence of missing molecules or oxygen defects. Absorption is also
induced by the diffusion of hydrogen molecules into the glass fiber.
• The intrinsic or basic fiber-material properties
It is caused by basic fiber material properties. If an optical fiber
were absolutely pure, with no imperfections or impurities, then all
absorption would be intrinsic. Intrinsic absorption sets the minimal
level of absorption
• The extrinsic (presence of impurities) fiber-material properties
Extrinsic absorption is caused by impurities introduced into the
fiber material. Trace metal impurities, such as iron, nickel, and
chromium, OH ions are introduced into the fiber during fabrication.
Extrinsic absorption is caused by the electronic transition of these
metal ions from one energy level to another.
Material Absorption
Photon Energy increasing (eV)
molecular vibration
within the glass
 prop. to WL

high energy excitation

 prop. to eV
Scattering
• Basically, scattering losses are caused by the interaction
of light with density fluctuations within a fiber. Density
changes are produced when optical fibers are
manufactured. During manufacturing, regions of higher
and lower molecular density areas, relative to the average
density of the fiber, are created.
• Light traveling through the fiber interacts with the density
areas as shown in Light is then partially scattered in all
direction.
Types of Scattering Losses
Linear : Po is proportional to Pi, and there is no frequency change –
thus the power propagated is proportional to mode power
• Two types: Rayleigh and Mie
In commercial fibers operating between 700-nm and 1600-nm
wavelength, the main source of loss is called Rayleigh
scattering. As the wavelength increases, the loss caused by
Rayleigh scattering decreases. If the size of the defect is greater
than one-tenth of the wavelength of light, the scattering
mechanism is called Mie scattering.
Nonlinear : The power propagation results in frequency change
• Types: Stimulated Brillouin Scattering & Stimulated Roman
Scattering
Linear scattering losses
Rayleigh scattering 
• It occurs because the molecules of silicon dioxide have
some freedom when adjacent to one another. Thus, setup
at irregular positions and distances with respect to one
another when the glass is rapidly cooled during the final
stage of the fabrication process. Those structural
variations are seen by light as variations in the refractive
index, thus causing the light to reflect – that is, to scatter –
in different directions.
Cont.,
• Rayleigh scattering is a scattering of light by particles
much smaller than the wavelength of the light, which may
be individual atoms or molecules. Rayleigh scattering is a
process in which light is scattered by a small spherical
volume of variant refractive index, such as a particle,
bubble, droplet, or even a density fluctuation.
• As light travels in the core, it interacts with the silica
molecules in the core. Rayleigh scattering is the result of
these elastic collisions between the light wave and the
silica molecules in the fiber. Rayleigh scattering accounts
for about 96 %of attenuation in optical fiber.
CONT.,
Causes of Rayleigh Scattering:
• It results from non-ideal physical properties of the
manufactured fiber. 
• It results from inhomogeneities in the core and cladding.
• Because of these inhomogeneities problems occur like
fluctuation in refractive index, density and compositional
variations.
Minimizing of Rayleigh Scattering:
• Rayleigh scattering is caused due to compositional
variations which can be reduced by improved fabrication.
Rayleigh Scattering
Equation of Rayleigh Scattering:
• Light scattering can be divided into three domains based
on a dimensionless size parameter, α which is defined as
A= πDp/ λ
  where πDp is the circumference(The boundary
line of a circle) of a particle and λ is the wavelength of
incident radiation. Based on the value of α, these domains
are:
• α<<1: Rayleigh scattering (small particle compared to
wavelength of light)
• α≈1: Mie scattering (particle about the same size as
wavelength of light)
Mie Scattering
Non perfect cylindrical structure of the fiber and
imperfections like irregularities in the core-cladding
interface, diameter fluctuations, strains and bubbles may
create linear scattering which is termed as Mie scattering
Mie scattering is a scattering of light by particles
approximately equal to the wavelength of the light, which
may be individual atoms or molecules.
Causes of Mie Scattering:
• Occurred due to inhomogeneities in the composition of
silica. (i.e. inhomogeneities in the density of SiO2 )
• Irregularities in the core-cladding interface,
• Difference in core cladding refractive index,
• Diameter fluctuations
• Due to presence of strains and bubbles.
Minimizing of Mie scattering
• Mie scattering is mainly caused by inhomogeneities which
can be minimized by
• Removing imperfection due to glass manufacturing
process
• Carefully controlled extrusion(To push or thrust out) and
coating of the fiber
Both Mie and Rayleigh scattering are considered elastic
scattering (elastic scattering is also called Linear
scattering) processes, in which the energy (and thus
wavelength and frequency) of the light is not substantially
changed.
Nonlinear Scattering
• Nonlinearity is primarily due to high power level, high bit-
rate (when we have to transmit over long distances)
• Resulting in frequency change
• Stimulated Brillouin Scattering (SBS)
This is defined as the modulation of light through thermal
molecular vibration within the fiber. The scattered light
contains upper and lower side bands along with incident
light frequency. An incident photon produces a scattered
photon as well as a photon of acoustic frequency. The
frequency shift is maximum in the backward direction and
it is reduced to zero in the forward direction. The threshold
optical power for Brillion scattering is proportional to
d2λ2αB
• Stimulated Raman Scattering:
Here, the scattered light consists of a scattered photon and
a high frequency optical photon. Further, this occurs both
in the forward and backward direction in the optical fiber.
The threshold optical power for Raman scattering is about
three orders of magnitude higher than the Brillouin
threshold for the given fiber, The threshold optical power
for Raman scattering is proportional to
d2λ2αR
Nonlinear Scattering
• Stimulated Roman Scattering (SRS)
• Power from lower wavelength channels is transferred to higher
wavelengths
• Exists only above a certain power threshold
• PR = 5.9*10-2*d^2 (in um)*λ (in um)*α( in dB/km) [in watts]
• d is code diameter (2a);
BENDING LOSS
• Bending the fiber also causes attenuation. Bending loss is
classified according to the bend radius of curvature:
• Microbend loss or
• Macrobend loss.
Microbends
• Microbends are small microscopic bends of the fiber axis
that occur mainly when a fiber is cabled. Fiber loss
caused by microbending can still occur even if the fiber is
cabled correctly. During installation, if fibers are bent too
sharply, macrobend losses will occur. Microbend losses
are caused by small discontinuities or imperfections in the
fiber. Uneven coating applications and improper cabling
procedures increase microbend loss.
Microbend
• External forces are also a source of microbends. An
external force deforms the cabled jacket surrounding the
fiber but causes only a small bend in the fiber. Microbends
change the path that propagating modes take, as shown
in figure. Microbend loss increases attenuation because
low-order modes become coupled with high-order modes
that are naturally lossy.
Macro- & Micro-bending Loss
Fiber Bend Loss
• Radiation loss due to any type of
bending
• There are two types bending
causing this loss
• micro bending Radiation attenuation
• small bends in the fiber created by coefficient = αr = C1 exp(-
crushing, contraction etc causes the loss C2 x R)
R = radius of the
• macro bending
curvature; C1 & C2 are
• fiber is sharply bent so that the light constants
traveling down the fiber can not make the
turn and gets lost
 Fiber Bend Loss
2
• Multimode Fibers 3×n1 ×l
Rcm = 2 2 3/2
• Critical Radius of curvature
• Large bending loss occurs at Rcm
4p (n1 - n2 )
• Single-Mode Fibers

20 l l -3
Rcs = 2 (2.748 - 0.996 )
2 3/2
(n1 - n2 ) lc
1/2
2p a ×n1(2D )
Note that modes propagating near
The critical wavelength (cutoff) will not
l =
c
Be fully guided within the core. 2.405
NOTE: Single mode operation (with step index) occurs only above λc.
Fiber Bend Loss - Example
• In general, the refractive index difference:

2 2
n1 - n2 n1- n2
D= 2
; D= <<1
2n1 n1