Energy Management Opportunities

in
Heating, Ventilation and Air
Conditioning (HVAC)
Your panelists

– Benefits, Technologies & Services:

Mike Carter and Mark Farrell,

Energy Engineers

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Why is HVAC important?

– Productivity
– Comfort
– Expense
Source: www.doe.gov

Source: www.bcs.org

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Contents
– Basics
– Cooling
 Chillers

 Packaged Rooftops

 Packaged Terminal Air Conditioners (PTACs)

 Geothermal Heat Pumps

– Heating
 Electric/Electrode Boilers

 Space Heaters

– Accessories
– Energy-Savings Tips
– Business Solutions Toolkit
– Rebates/Incentives

Source: NREL

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HVAC basics

– Power versus Energy

 Kilowatt (kW), or demand, is a measure of
Source: stock.xchng
power, similar to the speedometer of your
car that records the rate at which miles are traveled.
• A bigger engine is required to travel at a faster rate.
 Kilowatt-hour (kWh) is a measure of energy
consumption, similar to the odometer on Source: Commonwealth of Kentucky

your car which measures the miles traveled.

 Energy cost = energy consumption x unit cost
= kWh x $/kWh = kW x hrs x $/kWh
• A 50-ton chiller with a 0.8 kW/ton efficiency costs about $11,200 annually when
operating 2,800 load hours
(40 kW x 2,800 hr x $0.10/kWh national average)

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HVAC basics

– Temperature
 Dry bulb
• Normal thermometer
 Wet bulb
• Bulb wrapped in cloth—called a sock—that is
kept wet with water via wicking. Source: Microsoft Encarta

 Dew point Dry Bulb

Temperature
Relative
Humidity
Wet Bulb
Temperature
Dew
Point
(°F) (°F) (°F)
• Temperature to which air
70 100% 70 70
must be cooled for the 60% 61 56
water vapor component to 30% 53 38

reach saturation and 55 100% 55 55

condense into water. 60% 48 42

40% 45 37
30% Not Sustainable Ice

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HVAC basics

– Relative Humidity
 Relative humidity compares water vapor in the air with the concentration of water vapor
that the atmosphere could hold (if the atmosphere were at saturation).
 Usually expressed as a percentage.
 When the actual concentration of water vapor in air is equal to the water vapor
concentration at saturation, the relative humidity is 100%.
• There is one gallon of water in a 20' x 50' x 8' room at 68ºF and 100% RH
• There is only 0.1 teaspoon of water per cubic foot of air at 68ºF and 100% RH
 Operation at 78°F / 40% RH provides the same level of occupant comfort as 74°F / 50%
RH does due to evaporative cooling.

4C
40F In this example, specific (absolute)
humidity does not change until the
dew point is reached.
H2O

100%
Relative
Humidity

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HVAC basics

– Degree Days
 Degree day calculations provide a rough estimate of the heating and
cooling load for a particular location.
 Degree days are based on the difference between a day's average daily
temperature and the "balance point" temperature of 65°F (or 18°C).
• Cooling Degree Day (CDD) = (Average Temperature – 65°F) x
days/month
• Heating Degree Days (HDD) = (65°F – Average Temperature) x
days/month
• Location dependent and data available
from National Climate Data Center (NCDC),
WeatherUnderground, and other sources.

Source: Utility Allowance

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HVAC basics

– Load Hours
 HVAC load hours may be calculated from degree days using

a formula which incorporates Outside Design Temperatures.

• Cooling Load Hours (CLH) = CDD x 24 / (Cooling Outside Design
Temperature – 65°F)
» Cooling Outside Design Temperature (ODT) is in the range of
70°F to 105°F
• Heating Load Hours (HLH) = HDD x 24 / (65°F – Heating Outside
Design Temperature)
» Heating Outside Design Temperature (ODT) is typically
between -12°F and 40°F.
» It is necessary to reduce the heating load hours by about 40% to
match actual energy consumption.

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HVAC basics

– HVAC Load Hours

Source: Louisiana Department of Natural Resources, Technology Assessment Division

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HVAC basics

– Efficiency Ratings
 One ton (12,000 Btu/hr) equals 3.516 kW at 100% efficiency
 Coefficient of Performance (COP)
• COP = Rated Cooling Output, kBtuh / Rated electrical input, kBtuh
 Full Load Value (FLV)
• FLV = kW/ton
• COP = 3.516 (kW/ton) / FLV efficiency rating (kW/ton)
 Energy Efficiency Ratio (EER)
• EER = Cooling output (Btu) / Electricity consumed (watt)
• EER = 12,000 Btu per ton / FLV (watt per ton)
• EER = COP x 3.413
FLV COP EER
 Application Part Load Value (APLV) (kW/ton)
• Other than full load 0.6 5.9 20
 Integrated Part Load Value (IPLV) 0.75 4.7 16
• Weighted average of full load and part load
1.0 3.5 12

1.5 2.3 8

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HVAC basics

– Seasonal Energy Efficiency Ratio (SEER)

 Test conditions for determining SEER values are defined by ANSI/ARI standard 210-240-2008.
• Indoor air across the evaporator at 80ºF with 50% RH (wet) and <20% RH (dry)
• Outdoor air across condenser at 82ºF with 40% RH (wet)
» Outdoor air at 95ºF and 40% RH (Test A) is used to establish capacity and
EER
 Four categories of air-conditioning systems are tested.
 ARI does not require manufacturers to report the results of dehumidification performance.

SEER = (1 - (0.5 x [1 - (EERC/EERD))/(1 - CLF)]) x EERB

EERB = Energy Efficiency Ratio determined from Test B (steady, wet)
EERC = Energy Efficiency Ratio determined from Test C (steady, dry)
EERD = Energy Efficiency Ratio determined from Test D (cyclic, dry)
CLF = Cooling Load Factor

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HVAC basics

– Estimation of annual operating cost

 300 ton chiller; FLV = 0.75 kW/ton (EER=16, COP=4.7);
$0.10/kWh; national average
• Energy cost = Size (ton) x FLV (kW/ton) x CLH (hrs)
x Electric rate ($/kWh)
• Energy cost = 300 ton x 0.75 kW/ton x 600 hrs x $0.10/kWh
= $13,500
 5 ton heat pump; 13 SEER
• Energy cost = [Size (MBtuh) x CLH (hrs)]/ SEER (Btu/watt)
x Electric rate ($/kWh)
• Energy cost = [5 ton x 12 Mbtuh/ton x 600 hrs]/ 13 Btu/w
x $0.10/kWh
= $275

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HVAC basics

– Vapor Compression/Expansion Cycle

Source: www.makinemekanik.com

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HVAC basics

– Refrigerants
 Issues are depletion of the ozone layer and contribution

to global warming
• Manufacturers still are allowed to produce R-22 to service
existing equipment
• After 2020, cannot produce R-22, but can service existing
systems Refrigerant ODP GWP 1
Application 2

CFC-11 1.0 4,680 Centrifugal chillers

CFC-12 1.0 10,720 Chillers, refrigerators

HCFC-22 0.04 1,780 AC, chillers

HCFC-123 0.02 76 R-11 replacement

HFC-134a <0.00001 1,320 R-12 or R-22 replacement

HFC-407c <0.00001 1,700 R-22 replacement

HFC-410a <0.00001 1,890 AC

1
Ozone Depletion Potential
2
Global Warming Potential

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HVAC basics
– Delivery
 Water is much denser and stores much more heat

[cooling].
 A 1" (25 mm) diameter pipe containing hot/cold water can

deliver more energy than a 18" x 12" (0.45 m x 0.3 m)

duct, even though the air is moving much faster in the
duct than the water in the pipe.

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HVAC basics

– Indoor Air Quality

 ASHRAE 62.1-2007 Ventilation for Acceptable Indoor Air Quality
• “Air in which there are no known contaminants at harmful concentrations as determined by
cognizant authorities and with which a substantial majority (80% or more) of the people
exposed do not express dissatisfaction.”
 Ventilation Rate Procedure
• People Outdoor Air Rate (Rp)
• Area Outdoor Air Rate (Ra)
» For instance, office areas—5 cfm/person and 0.06 cfm/ft²
 Indoor Air Quality (IAQ) Procedure
• Based on an analysis of contaminant sources, contaminant concentration targets, and
perceived acceptability targets.
» CO2 sensors are one method
• Credit is given for controls that remove contaminants, such as filters and UV light, that can
achieve concentrations equal to or lower than those achieved by the Ventilation Rate
Procedure.

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Cooling
Source: EERE

– Chillers
Source: ORNL

Centrifugal Chiller

Chiller Minimum Efficiency Requirements (ASHRAE 90.1-2004)

Full-Load Rating, Full-Load Rating, Part-Load Ratings,

Compressor Type/Capacity COP (kBtu) FLV (kW/ton) IPLV (kBtu)

Reciprocating (30-150 tons) 4.20 0.84 5.05 Best available Full-Load FLV is
Screw/Scroll (<150 tons) 4.45 0.80 5.20 0.47-0.58 kW/ton for large
Screw (150-300 tons) 4.90 0.72 5.60 (>150 ton) water-cooled chillers
Screw (301-800 tons) 5.50 0.64 6.15

Centrifugal (<150 tons) 5.00 0.70 5.25

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Cooling

– Water-cooled centrifugal chiller versus air-cooled

screw chiller (20-year life) in office building
 Energy simulation using DOE-2.2 Calculation Core Engine
 Net Present Value (NPV) of total costs of ownership

100-ton 500-ton
Cost Category
Air Water Air Water

New York City

Initial 50% 68% 22% 42%
Energy 40% 20% 63% 45%
Maintenance 10% 12% 15% 13%
Minneapolis
Initial 72% 78% 45% 60%
Energy 16% 10% 35% 20%
Maintenance 12% 12% 20% 20%
Source: Total Cost of Ownership For Air-Cooled and
Water-Cooled Chiller Systems, Ramez Naguib
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Cooling

– Chiller Maintenance Tips

 Visual check of compressor oil (darker is worse).
• Change oil on large systems once a year and clean particles from case.
 Take superheat and subcooling temperature readings to obtain chiller's maximum
efficiency.
 Install water gauges so you can see pressure drops, particularly through the evaporator.
• If tubes need cleaning and the interiors of the tubes are smooth bore, technicians
can remove the sludge with bristle brushes attached to long metal rods.
 Put a bypass valve on the end of the pipe run going to the chillers to get the proper water
flow (overflow can cause vibration, damaging the copper tubes).
 Clean water tower condensers and unclog spray nozzles, especially in the spring.
 Check for high vibration on a capillary line (causes leaks) and secure all vibrating lines.
Source: John C. Schaub Inc., Mt. Laurel, NJ

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Cooling / heating

– Packaged Rooftop

Image courtesy of McQuay International

Unitary Air Conditioner Minimum Efficiency Requirements

ASHRAE 90.1-2004

Full-load EER (Btu/watt)

Size Range Pre-2010 As of 2010*
65-135 kBtu/hr (5-11 ton) 10.3 11.2
135-240 kBtu/hr (11-20 ton) 9.7 11.0
240-760 kBtu/hr (20-63 ton) 9.5 10.0
>760 kBtu/hr (>63 ton) 9.2 9.7
*Phase-out date for R-22 refrigerant

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Cooling / heating

– Packaged Terminal Air Conditioners (PTACs)

 EER of 10 to 12 available today
 Suppliers include Amana, Bard, Carrier, ClimateMaster,

Friedrich, GE, and Skymark

PTAC/PTHP Minimum Efficiency Requirements
ASHRAE 90.1-2001
New
Replacement Construction
Cooling Full-load EER (Btu/watt)
PTAC (7,000 Btuh) 9.4 11.0
PTAC (15,000 Btuh) 7.7 9.3
Source: www.amana-ptac.com/ PTHP (7,000 Btuh) 9.3 10.8
PTHP (15,000 Btuh) 7.6 9.1
Heating Full-load COP (Kbtuh)
PTHP (7,000 Btuh) 2.7 3.0
PTHP (15,000 Btuh) 2.5 2.8

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Cooling / heating

– Geothermal or Water-Source Heat Pump

 Takes advantage of underground temperatures that range from 45°F (7°C) to 75°F
(21°C).
 Roughly 30% savings compared to AC/Boiler or AC/Furnace combination
 Geothermal requires higher capital investment and requires a significant amount of
space
 Hybrid geothermal saves on first cost but operating costs are higher

Loop Depth Length/ton

Vertical 100-500' 300-400'/ton

Horizontal 5-6' 800'/ton

Pond >8' 400'/ton

Image courtesy of ECS Geothermal

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Cooling / heating
– Coil Cleaning
 Most commercial HVAC units have multiple coils
stacked or sandwiched together.
 Outdoor condenser coils lose less performance
with blockage than indoor evaporator coils.
• If the evaporator airflow of a 3-ton rooftop
unit is restricted by 36%, the capacity drop
is 19.4%.
» This changes the 3-ton unit to a 2.5-ton unit.
• On the other hand, when the condenser coils are
56% restricted, the capacity drops only 10.9%. Image courtesy of Coil-Tech

» Blocked condenser coils can increase condensing temperature by

8°F to 10°F resulting in a 6% to 8% increase in power consumption.
 You can check coil performance by measuring the air temperature drop across the coils.
• Larger temperature drops of 30ºF or higher indicate that a coil cleaning is in order .
 You can also measure supply-fan amperage or filter/coil pressure drop (with fresh filters)
and compare this data against last year's readings.

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Heating

– Electric Boilers
 Available from 10 kW for the smaller units up to over 3,000 kW
 Often used in tandem with a gas-fired boiler in a fuel-switching strategy
 Replacement of an electric element bundle (13-18 year life) can range in price from $2,000 to $2,500 for
a 75 kW to 100 kW electric boiler

– Electrode Steam Boilers

 Operate at high voltages (12 kV or 24 kV)
 Submersible electrode boilers
• Rely on immersed electrodes to conduct
electricity through the boiler water
 High-velocity jet electrode boilers
• In this design, the water jet (striking an
electrode plate) is the resistance element
 Pros include lower installed capital cost, higher
Source: Precision Boilers
reliability, higher efficiency (99.5% at 100% output)
and rapid response

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Heating

– Space Heaters
 All portable electric heaters using a heating element are equally efficient
in that they essentially convert all the electricity they use into heat
• Only more cost-effective than whole-house
furnaces if temperature is reduced in
other rooms
 Quartz "Infrared" space heaters such as
SunHeat and EdenPure
• Infrared radiation does not warm you directly
 Traditional infrared (picture) has the coils and
lamps exposed for direct line of site radiation Source: Fostoria Industries

 Ceramic and oil-filled heaters arguably provide greater heating comfort

because they retain some heat after the current is off

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Accessories

– Economizers bring in cool outside air

 Typical 2 to 5 year payback for economizers
 Required by ASHRAE 90 for >5 tons in cool/dry climates (West) and
>11 tons in cool/moist climates (Midwest), but not in warm/moist
climates (Southeast)

Four Economizer Modes

Mode Temp. (ºF) Mechanical Damper
Heating <30 On Closed
Modulated Economizer 30-55 Off Varies
Integrated Economizer 55-75 On Open
Cooling >75 On Closed

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Accessories

– Heat Recovery Ventilators

 Can recover about 60% to 70% of heat in exiting air
• Low grade heat for space heating and equipment expense results
in long paybacks
 A solution to ASHRAE 62 IAQ requirements

Source: George Retseck Illustrations

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Accessories
– Energy/Enthalpy/Desiccant Wheels
 Can recover about 70% to 80% of the energy in the exiting air and deliver that energy to
the incoming air.
• Desiccant wheels are most cost effective in climates with extreme winters or
summers, and where fuel costs are high.
 In mild climates, the cost of the additional electricity consumed by the system fans and
drum motor may exceed the energy savings from not having to condition the supply air.

Source: Fläkt Woods

Source: EERE

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Accessories

– Thermal Energy Storage (TES)

 Thermal energy storage makes ice or chilled water during the night—shifts peak.
 Full Storage system shifts the entire load to off-peak hours and is driven by electric rates and
rebates.
 In a Partial Storage system, a much smaller chiller runs during both peak and off-peak hours with
help from stored cooling during peak hours.
• Attractive when more cooling capacity is needed or when a chiller needs to be replaced.
 Ice Energy (Windsor, CO) offers factory assembled modular ice making systems (Ice Bear) for small
to medium-sized commercial applications.

Image courtesy of CALMAC Manufacturing Corporation

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Accessories
– Thermal Energy Storage (TES)
 Ice can absorb eight times the thermal energy of
chilled water.
 Three up-front decisions during system design:
• How the ice is made and stored (ice on coil—
internal melt, ice on coil—external melt, or
encapsulated ice).
• How the ice bank is discharged.
• How cold is transported to the load (slurry
systems versus brine or glycol transfer).

Image courtesy of FAFCO, Incorporated

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Accessories
– Thermal Energy Storage (TES)
 Example: Shifting from peak to non-peak times with a

resultant 600 kW drop in peak demand (1,500 kW to

900 kW)
• For example– at a demand charge of $8.00/kW, that saves
$4,800 per month.
• Additional savings are possible if time-of-use rates result in a
lower $/kWh energy charge during off-peak hours.
 Example: A normally 400-ton chiller outputting 3,000
ton-hours per day might be replaced by a 160-ton
chiller.
• Produces 1,600 ton-hours during a 10-hour peak time period.
• Produces 1,400 ton-hours during a 14-hour off-peak period.

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Energy-savings tips
– Temperature Setback/Setforward
 Save 3% per °F per 24 hr
 72°F  68°F ( 4°F) for 12 hr saves 6%
– Obtain Proper Humidity Control
 In the summer, decrease relative humidity (RH) to feel cool.
 Operation at 78°F / 40% RH provides the same level of occupant
comfort as 74°F / 50% RH does.
• 74°F  78°F setforward for 24 hr saves 10% to 12%
• Remove moisture with desiccant or enthalpy/heat wheel
• Relative humidity >70% with temperature > 70°F can encourage mold growth!

 In the winter, opposite applies—raise RH to feel warm.

• Add moisture with evaporative humidifier
• Ultrasonic humidifiers require filtered water

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Energy-savings tips

– Narrow your chiller water temperature set points

 Typical conditions are chilled water temperature of 42°F
and condensing water temperature of 80°F to 85°F.
• 2% savings per °F that chilled water temperature is raised
• 5°F to 10°F increase is possible; more may cause damage and
reduce cooling capacity (ton rating)
 Efficiency benefits from lowering condensing water temperature are offset
by increased fan and pump operation, along with reduced cooling
capacity.
• Variable Frequency Drives (VFDs) and oversizing the cooling tower
can help
• The larger the system, the greater the net energy savings

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The Business Solutions Toolkit
– Reduce energy expenditures with free, online tools
 Energy benchmark data by business segment
 Efficiency recommendations by business segment
 Lighting, motor and other energy calculators
 Facility energy assessment… plus more

– Get energy answers with live Web resources

 “Ask an Expert” service supplies direct answers to energy questions
 Searchable Energy Library and News resources
 Monthly electronic newsletter delivered to your e-mailbox

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How to access the Toolkit

– Links found on the Rocky Mountain Power website

 Can access direct at rockymountainpower.net/toolkit
– Toolkit resources also are delivered to you as part of our monthly
electronic newsletters

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What is in the Toolkit

37
Online business tools rockymountainpower.net/toolkit

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Rocky Mountain Power FinAnswer Express

– FinAnswer Express is for commercial and industrial customers–

either retrofit or new construction
– Pre-calculated incentives for HVAC equipment and high-
efficiency lighting
 Custom incentives may be available for other types of equipment
– Incentive process (pre-purchase agreement or post purchase
application) varies by technology and project type
 Please understand the process before you purchase!
– Check our website for on-line forms plus trade allies available to
help

– Also check for state and federal tax incentives at dsire.org

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RMP Energy FinAnswer

– Applies to comprehensive commercial or industrial projects–

either new construction or commercial retrofit*
 Lighting and non-lighting projects can be packaged
– Starts with an energy analysis to identify options and highest
priority measures
 Commissioning is required for most measures
– Incentives are project-based
 Payable by one-time lump sum check, per project
– Incentive agreement must be signed before equipment is
purchased
– Check our website for participation steps and online forms

*Commercial retrofit projects must be at least 20,000 sq. ft. to be eligible

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Contacts
– For more information please phone us:
 Call your Business Solutions Team for answers to service and account
questions at 1-866-870-3419
– Visit our website at:
 Business program page –
rockymountainpower.net/business
 Business Solutions Toolkit –
rockymountainpower.net/toolkit
– Or contact us directly:
 E-mail us at energy.expert@pacificorp.com
 Use our online inquiry form – rockymountainpower.net/inquiry
 Call our business Energy Services Hotline at 1-800-222-4335

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