Satellite Communication

ETU 08107

By Dr. Paul Fahamuel Mmbaga

Introduction
What is a satellite?
• A satellite is an object that orbits a planet or star

• In the context of spaceflight, a satellite is an object that has been

intentionally placed into orbit for intension of relaying information

• In communication the satellite is simply a sky radio repeater

Introduction
• Idea by Arthur C. Clarke (1945)-British
science fiction writer
• A satellite in a circular equatorial orbit with a radius of about
42,242 km would have an angular velocity that matched with that
of the earth.

• Thus, it would always remain above the same spot on ground and
it could receive the relay signals from most of hemisphere
Introduction……
• Idea by Arthur C. Clarke (1945)-British
science fiction writer
• Three satellite spaced 120o apart could cover the whole world and
thus reliable communication between any two points in the world
was possible.

• Electrical power for the satellite would be obtained by conversion

of the sun’s radiation by means of solar cells
Introduction……
• Today satellite communication systems remain responsible for more
than half of all long distance communication in the world.

• Nearly all the world’s television services and most of the connectivity
needed for the internet is provided using mature satellite
communication technologies and systems

• Traditionally, satellite systems were used to provide long distance inter-

continental communication facilities, over the oceans and between
countries, where other means were impossible or too costly.
Introduction……
• Clarke developed the basic rules of a suitable orbit now known as the
geostationary :
• Described the GSO orbit , the problems uncounted and how to
overcome them
• Calculated the power that would be required for the transmitters
and what the requirements would be for receivers.
• Showed what effects eclipses of the sun would have on such a
system
• Showed the requirements would be for a microwave “rocket
station’’ in space
Introduction…
• The idea of Clarke was faced with much resistance at the time and
even mockery.
• However, in1997 Russia came into action with the first artificial
satellite, Sputnik which means “lightning”.
Introduction…
Sputnik……………
• It was launched into an elliptical low Earth orbit by the Soviet Union
• It orbited for three weeks before its batteries died 
• Then orbited silently for two months before it fell back into the
atmosphere.
Introduction…
Sputnik achievements
• Helped to identify the upper atmospheric layer’s density,
through measuring the satellite’s orbital changes

• It also provided data on radio-signal distribution in the

atmosphere

• Detection of meteoroid
Introduction…
• The announcement of the Sputnik 1 success opened the research gate
and speeded up the research on satellite.
Year
Release/Development
1945 Arthur C. Clarke Article: ‘’Extra-terrestrial Relays’’
 
1955 John R. Pierce Article: ‘’Orbital Radio Relays’’
 
1957 Sputnik: Russia launches the first earth satellite
This was a metal sphere, the size of a large beach ball, with
four antennas.
 
1960 1st Successful DELTA Launch Vehicle
 
Introduction……
The recognized space powers today are:
•1957 USSR (Russia)
•1958 USA
•1965 France
•1970 Japan
•1970 China
•1971 UK
•1980 India
•1988 Israel
Introduction……
Satellite Applications
• The most common satellite services are: 
• Satellite Internet access
• Satellite phone
• Satellite radio
• Satellite television
• Satellite navigation
Introduction……
• Satellite applications can be broadly classified into:
• Satellite communication applications
• Satellite television, Telephone and Data communication
• Remote sensing and Earth observation applications
• Discovery of hidden mineral resources, terrain mapping etc.
• Meteorological applications.
• Weather forecasting, flood forecast, melting of glaciers etc.
• Military applications
• Providing strategic communication links between border forces and headquarters, spying,
providing navigational aids to ships, aircraft etc.
• Scientific and Technological applications.
• Satellites for astronomical research, monitoring of different layers of atmosphere etc
Satellite systems
Satellite systems
• A satellite system consists of :
• A transponder
• A ground-based station to control its operation, and
• A user network of earth stations
• Provide the facilities for transmission and reception of
communications traffic.
Satellite systems
Satellite transmissions are categorized into:
• Bus
• Sometimes referred to as platform includes the control
mechanisms that support the payload operation.
• Payload
• The payload is the part that support flow of actual user
information that is conveyed through the system.
Satellite systems
Passive and Active Satellites
• Passive satellites:
• The simplest type of satellite is a passive reflector, a device that
simply ‘’bounces’’ a signal from one place to another.

• A passive satellite is one that simply reflects a signal back to earth;

there are no gain devices on board to amplify or repeat the signal.

• The moon is a natural passive satellite of the earth, and became the first
satellite transponder.
Satellite systems
• Active satellites:
• An active satellite is one that electronically repeats a signal back to earth (i.e.
receives, amplifies, and retransmits the signal).
Advantages of passive satellites are:
• They do not require sophisticated electronic equipment on board, although they are not
necessarily void of power.

• Some passive satellites require a radio beacon transmitter for tracking and ranging
purposes.

• A beacon is a continuously transmitting unmodulated carrier that an earth station can lock
onto and use to align its antennas or to determine the exact location of the satellite.
Satellite systems
Disadvantage of passive satellites:
• It is their inefficient use of transmitted power. Example, with
echo, only 1 part in every 1018 of the earth station
transmitted power was actually returned to the earth station
receiving antenna
Satellite systems
Satellite Designs
• Most spacecraft are custom-designed for specific
purposes, hence the satellites have unusual
shapes unlike aircraft, which must have
reasonably smooth (aerodynamic) shapes
Satellite systems
Some satellite designs

Explorer I: 1 m long and 20 cm in diameter. Spin

Sputnik 1: 60-cm diameter sphere with stabilized, with flexible antennas (Telemetry)
straight-wire antennas (Radio-Signals)
Satellite systems

Some satellite designs

Dual-spin stabilized satellite: 3 m in diameter, up to several

A generic military/meteorological/communications meters tall; lower section spins to provide gyroscopic
satellite: 1-3 m on each side, stabilized with stability, upper section does not spin (or spins very slowly or
internal gyroscopes intermittently) to point antenna and/or other sensors in a
specific direction-altitude determination and control
Satellite systems
Satellite Segments
• Each satellite is designed as a system of interfacing groups of
components
• Thus a satellite system consists of a number of components, which
are referred to as subsystems

• The main segments are the Ground Segment and the Space Segment,
shown below.
Satellite Segments
SPACE SEGMENT

S ATELLITE

CONTROL
S TATION

Uplinks (TT&C) Downlinks

TRANS MITTERS RECEIVERS

GROUND SEGMENT
Control Station TT&C
Telemetry, Tracking and Command Systems
(TT&C)
• It ensures optimal performance
• Taking Care of the Satellite in Orbit (adjusting
satellite’s obit)
• Re-aligning the solar panel
• Perform system backup
System operation
• Radio waves are transmitted to the satellite from earth stations
• The radio waves are received by the satellite, regenerated (or
amplified in some cases)
• Re-transmitted back to stations on the earth
• Transmissions from earth stations to satellites are called Uplinks
• Transmissions from satellites to earth stations are called
Downlinks
• Radio link quality is determined by propagation conditions and
defined in terms of the carrier to noise ratios and other
parameters
System operation ……
• Several earth stations access the satellites and the
transponders using specific access techniques referred to as
multiple access techniques
• Sometimes satellites are interconnected together to
form a network of satellites using inter-satellite links
The Space Segment
A satellite (space segment) consists of a
• Payload
• Platform commonly referred to as the “bus”
• TT&C

Payload consists of (in the form of “transponders”):

• Receiving
• Transmitting and
• Regeneration equipment
The Space Segment
A transponder does three things:
• It receives and amplifies the signal from the uplink for re-
transmission on the downlink

• It changes the frequency of transmission on the downlink

• Regenerate the received signal before re-transmission on the

downlink
The Space Segment
The “bus” (platform) involves common subsystems such as:

• The required ones:

• Propulsion
• Structure
• Power supply
• Thermal control
• Attitude control
• Communications
• TT & C equipment
The Space Segment
• Optional:
• Scientific instruments
• Environmental Control and Life Support
Platform/ bus Subsystem
Propulsion
• Spacecraft is usually launched onto an orbit
or a trajectory to keep it moving.
• To change to a different orbit or trajectory,
rockets must be used to add force
Propulsion …….
Propulsion subsystem consists of 3 units
• Low thrust actuators/Reaction Control System (RCS) for:
• Attitude and orbit corrections (10-3 to 20 N)
• Provides velocity increment of 50 m/s.

• High thrust motor (400 to 50,000 N) referred to as:

• Apogee Kick Motor (AKM) or
• Apogee Boost Motor (ABM),
• Provides velocity increment for geosynchronous (geostationary) orbit injection
at the transfer orbit (about 1500 m/s).
Propulsion …….
• Perigee Kick Motor (PKM)
• Provides velocity increment required to inject the
satellite into transfer orbit (about 2430 m/s).

• Note that the low thrust actuators are the most

important of the three since they are employed for
Station Keeping of geostationary satellites
Platform/ bus Subsystem ….
Power Supply
• Cars and aircraft generate electrical power from their
engines, but spacecraft engines are not always on.

• But satellites need power for communications, computers,

scientific instruments, environment control and life support,
thermal control, and even for propulsion (to start the rocket
engines).
Power Supply ………………..

• Batteries are used to store electrical energy.

• Solar cells (photovoltaic cells) convert sunlight energy
directly into electrical energy.
• In some cases, a spacecraft is in a shadow of Earth, so a
combination of :
• Solar arrays (large sets of solar cells) and
• Rechargeable batteries must be used.
Power Supply ………………..
• Radio-isotope Thermo-electric Generators (RTG's)
convert heat from decaying radioisotope (usually
plutonium) directly into electrical power

• RTG's are used for spacecraft that are moving away

from the Sun
Thermal control
• The side of spacecraft facing Sun gets very hot since
there are no breezes to cool it off, and the side of the
spacecraft that is facing away from Sun gets very cold
i.e. no warm atmosphere around it to keep it warm.
• When the need arise for the spacecraft temperature
control. Two methods of thermal control are normally
being used, which are passive and active.
Thermal control……..

• Passive control (no power)

• White paint or reflective coating is applied on the sunlit
side
• Low-emission coatings are used on shadow side so as to
make the spacecraft not to radiate away so much heat.
• Insulation blankets, which form multi-layer insulation
(MLI), employ many layers of light-weight material that
conducts heat very poorly; are also applied.
Thermal control……..
• Heat pipes; these conduct heat from hot part(s) of satellite to cold
part(s).
• A heat pipe consists of a sealed pipe which goes around corners
• This pipe containing a liquid that boils at a relatively low temperature.
• At the hot end of the satellite, heat enters the heat pipe and causes
the liquid at that end to boil
• The resulting vapours expand into the pipe, carrying that heat.
• When they reach the cold end of the satellite, the vapours condense
back into a liquid, releasing the heat, which then flows out of the pipe
to warm that part of the satellite.
Thermal control……..
• Inside the pipe, a thin layer of material (something
absorbent like a paper towel) draws the liquid back
along the pipe to the beginning point, where the cycle
is repeated.
• Heat pipes are the most efficient way to carry heat.
• They use no electrical power, and will operate
efficiently since there are no mechanical parts to wear
out
Thermal control…………
Active control (uses power)
• Heating coils (like in a toaster) are used to warm up
cold parts.
• Note that some propellants freeze easily.
• The spacecraft uses special cooling systems on hot
parts.
Active thermal…………

Active thermal control using heating coils

Communications
• Communication can be established using radios (several are
employed for redundancy operation).
• Data are sent back to Earth stations from scientific
instruments housed in the spacecraft.
• Normally, instructions are sent to the spacecraft from Earth.
• Video information is obtained, which includes the pictures of
Earth, stars, other planets, etc.
• Various antennas are used with the satellite systems such as
dish, dipole, and helix.
Attitude sensing and control

This is used for orientation of spacecraft.

• Sensing
• Star sensor: Cameras looking in different directions see
different star patterns; onboard computer compares camera
images with stored star catalog to determine which way the
satellite is oriented
Attitude sensing and control

• Sun sensor: Measures angle between "sun line" and a

reference axis in the space craft; onboard computer uses this
angle to help determine overall orientation of the satellite.
Attitude sensing and control
Gyroscopes:
• Is a device used for measuring or
maintaining orientation and angular velocity
• Use electric motor in s/c to change the speed of spinning disk;
• Motor causes action that changes disk's speed and the
reaction is the satellite starting to rotate in opposite direction
Attitude sensing and control

Control-if sensors detect wrong s/c orientation, control

provides corrective action
• Thrusters: Fire thrusters (small rockets) in pairs to start
rotation, then fire opposite pair to stop the rotation. 
Attitude sensing and control
Control …
Gyroscopes:
• Use electric motor in s/c to change the speed of spinning
disk;
• Motor causes action that changes disk's speed and the
reaction is the satellite starting to rotate in opposite
direction
Structure
• Supports other subsystems during launch/landing
• Protects components from meteors, radiation, etc.
• Unifies all subsystems into a single object (the
spacecraft)
• Can also conduct heat from one point to another
Telemetry Tracking & Control equipment

Computers

• Provide automatic capability for satellite, reducing

dependence on expensive ground control
• Must include backups or redundant computers if humans
onboard
• Need to be protected from high-energy radiation
• Cosmic rays can alter computer program (bit flip) without human
ground controllers realizing it
Telemetry, Tracking & Control equipment

Scientific instruments
• Magnetometer - measures magnetic field
• Radiation-level sensors
• Spectroscopes- Measure spectrum of light
• Optical cameras- Taking pictures/images
Environmental control and life support
• Temperature, air etc.
Summary of Communication Satellite Subsystems,
their Functions and Parameters of Importance
SUBSYSTEM FUNCTION PARAMETERS OF
IMPORTANCE
Repeaters Amplify signals and Noise figure, linearity
transmit back and output rf power
Antennas Receive and transmit Coverage, gain
signals
Electric power supply Provides electric energy Power, voltage
at various voltage levels regulation
Structure Supports equipment Stiffness
Attitude and orbit Attitude stabilization, Accuracy
control orbit determination
Thermal control Temperature regulation
Heat dissipation
capability
Propulsion Provides velocity Specific impulse, mass
increments and torques of propellant
Tracking, Telemetry Exchange of house- Number of channels,
and Control keeping data with security of
control center communication.
The Ground Segment
The figure below describes the ground segment:
Note: Not all earth stations are equipped with all the elements
listed, especially VSATs and receive only terminals
What keeps Satellites (or objects) in
Orbits?
Centrifugal force caused by its rotation around the Earth is counterbalanced by Earth’s
gravitational pull

Johannes Kepler, the astromer (1571-1630) discovered the planetary laws:

• 1st law: The planets orbit in ellipses with the Sun at one focus.
• 2nd law: The line joining the Sun and a planet sweeps out equal areas in equal intervals of time.
• 3rd law: The square of the time (P) of revolution of a planet divided by the cube of its mean
distance (D) from the Sun gives a number that is the same for all planets. (Constant=P 2/D3)
 
• Kepler’s laws are applicable to any two bodies in space that interact through gravitation.
• The larger of the two bodies is called Primary and the smaller is called the Secondary or Satellite.