CLIMATOLOGY

UNIT-1

1. FACTORS THAT DETERMINED CLIMATE

2. COMPONENTS AND ELEMENTS OF CLIMATE

3. CHARACTERTICS OF CLIMATE TYPES

1. FACTORS THAT DETERMINED CLIMATE
 Weather vs. Climate

Weather and Climate are not the same

Weather - The conditions of the atmosphere

at a particular place and time.

Climate - Average conditions of a certain

place over a long period of time
 Global Factors that determined climate

• Latitude • Winds-thermal forces

• Altitude • Trade winds
• Land - Water Relationship • Mid-latitude westerly's
• Influence of topography • Polar winds
(Mountain Barriers) • Annual wind shift
• Solar radiation • Ocean Currents
• Tilt of earth axis • Prevailing Winds
• Radiation at earth surface
• Earth thermal balance
 Latitude

Latitude - Distance north or

south of the equator

High - Polar (cool to cold)

Middle – Seasonal

Low - Warm to hot

 Altitude
Altitude - Height above sea level
A. In mountain areas, there are major climatic
differences from the bottom to the top.
B. As air rises, it loses the ability to hold heat. It gets
1F colder for every 300-400 ft. you go up.

ALTIUTDE REF
IMAGE
 Land-Water Relationship
A. A large body of water tends to cause a mild or
moderate climate. (Very little change)
B. A body of water heats up and cools down slower
than a land mass
C. Wind assumes the temp. of the surface it passes
over and carries that temp. with it. (ex. San Diego)

CALIFORNIA
 INFLUENCE OF TOPOGRAPHY
For Example : Mountain Barrier’s
• Causes different climates on opposite sides of mountain
a)Moisture carrying winds must rise to set over mountains.
b)Air cools as it rises, bring ability to hold water causing rain on the
wind ward aid.
c)This leaves no moisture for the leeward side creating a desert.
Mountain Barrier’s
NO
RAIN
WINDWARD SIDE Less
rain LEEWARD SIDE
Less
Rain
Rain
WIND
Cascade Mts
5,000 ft.
Dry

Spokane, WA
Ocean Seattle, WA 12 in. Rain per Year
(80 in. Rain per Year)
 SOLAR RADIATION
The earth receives almost all its energy from the sun in the form of radiation
Thus the sun as dominating influences on climates

SOLAR RADIATION ( QUALITY) The spectrum of solar radiation extends from

2990 to 2300 nanometer.
a) Ultra –violet radiation – 290 to 380nm
b) Visible light 380 (violet) to 700 (red)
c) Short infra-red radiation- 700 to 230nm
The spectral energy distribution varies with altitude due to filtering effect of
atmosphere

SOLAR RADIATION ( QUANTITY)

d) Solar radiant constant 1395W/m2
e) Varies 2% plus or minus due to out put of sun and itself
f) The earth moves around slightly in elliptical orbit
g) One revolution is completed in 365days 5 hours 48minitues and 46 seconds
 TILT OF EARTH AXIS
The earth rotates in its own axis each rotation making one 24hour day.
The axis of rotation (the line joining the north and south poles) is tilted to the
plane of elliptical orbit at angle of 66.5 degree, the direction of this axis is
constant.
Due to the tilt. Position, are receiving the maximum intensity moves north to
south. Between tropic of cancer(l 23.4 degree N) and the tropic of Capricorn(l
23 degree 5’ N)

TILIT OF EARTH AXIS

 RADIATION AT THE EARTH’S SURFACE
• Earth-sun relationship affects the amount of radiation
received at a particular point on the earth surface three-ways.
1.Cosine law, which states that the intensity on the titled surface
equals the normal intensily time cosine of the (angle of
incidence)

ANGLE OF INCIDENCE
Atmospheric deflection

The absorption of radiation by ozone, vapours and dust particles in the atmosphere
(a factor of 0.2 to 0.7)

PASSAGE OF RADIATION THROUGH HEAT RELEASES FROM THE GROUND AND

ATMOSPHERE THE ATMOSPHERE

Duration of sunshine
The length of the daylight period
 TRADE WIND THE CORIOLIS FORCE
• The atmosphere rotate with the earth
• As it is light in weight and behaves as fluid held against the
earth surface only by Gravity and friction.
• It has tendency to lag behind the earth rotation where this
rotation is the fastest at the equator.
• Because of this ‘slippage’ at the boundary layer between the
earth and it atmosphere is called as ‘coriolis force’
T
H
E
R
i nd
M
dew
A t ra
L east
h
F
nort
O t
R l tan
su
C Re
E
THE CORIOLIS FORCE
 MID-LATITUDE WESTERLIES
• If the air is moving from about 30, where it has a substantial
circumferential velocity towards 60 degree, where the earth radius rotation,
thus its circumferential velocity is much less, the faster rotating air will ‘
Overtake the earth surface’ .

POLAR WINDS
• At the meeting point of polar winds and mid-latitude westerly a band of
low-pressure
-a sub-polar front is formed, with highly variable and strong winds.

ANNUAL WIND SHIFT

• During the course of each year the global wind pattern shifts from north to
south and back again.
• Retaining broadly symmetrical about the inter tropical- conversance zone.
 OCEAN CURRENT
• River of water that move through the ocean
a) They assume. The temperature of the water that they pass
over and carry temperature.
b) Wind passing over the current must pass near the land mass
to have an impact.
WARM CURRENT COLD CURRENT

ocean
ocean
land
land land
ocean

Causes warm Causes cool and

and moist dry climate
climate
(rain forest)
 PREVALLING WINDS
• Winds that blow most often
in different part of the
earth.
• A Wind blows because
a) Air over warm land rises
b) cooler air moves in from
surrounding area to replace
rising air.
c) The cool air is heated and
process repeats.
2. ELEMENTS /COMPONENTS OF CLIMATE
ELEMENTS/COMPONENTS OF CLIMATE
•TEMPERTURE

•PERCIPITATION

•WIND

•AIR PRESSURE

•SKY CONDITION( sun shine and clouds)

•HUMIDITY
 TEMPERTURE

• Temperature is recorded
using thermometers Stevenson screen
housed inside a
Stevenson screen
• Weather stations record
both air temperature and the
temperature of the ground
 PRECIPITATION

• The amount of
precipitation is measured
using a rain gauge

• Rainfall, snow, hail and fog.

• Rainfall is measured in a rain

gauge.

• Some rain gauges record

rainfall automatically whilst
others are emptied everyday by
an observer
RAIN GAUAGE
 WIND

Wind is measured in two ways with two instruments:

1. Wind Direction – Wind Vane
2. Wind Speed – Anemometer

Wind Vane: the arrow points Anemometer: the stronger the

in the direction that the wind the faster the caps turn. The
number of turns in a given time
wind is coming from.
gives us the wind speed in knots.
• The direction and strength of the
wind are both measured
• A wind vane measures direction

• An anemometer records strength

• Wind strength can also be
measured using the Beaufort
Scale
 AIR PRESSURE

• Air pressure is measured

using a barometer and
recorded using a
barograph.

• It is measured in millibars
(mb).

• Average air pressure is

1000 mb
 Cloud cover.
• Cloud cover is measured
just by using our eyes.

• You look at the sky and

decide how cloudy it is –
and estimate how much
the of the sky are
covered.

• Cloud cover is measured

in oktas.

• You also get different

types of clouds.
 Sunshine hours.
Sunshine

• The total amount of

sunshine in a day is
measured using a
sunshine recorder.
• The sun’s rays travel
through the glass ball
and burn marks onto
the card behind it.
Strip of card
Glass Ball
Sunshine

• A note is made of the

number of hours of
bright sunshine each
day
• Sunshine is traditionally
measured using a
Campbell-Stokes
sunshine recorder
 HUMIDITY

• Humidity is measured with wet

and dry bulb - hygrometer
• This consist of two ordinary
mercury thermometers mounted
side by side
• First one measures the air
temperature(DBT)
• The bulb of second one is
covered with the gauze or wick
and its is kept wet moisture
evaporating gives a cooling
effect
• Thus the reading of WBT will
less than DBT
4. Body heat balance
1. Introduction

2. The body’s heat production

3. The body’s heat loss

4. Heat loss in various thermal environments

• Calm ,warm air , moderate humidity
• Hot air and considerable radiation
• Hot air, radiation and appreciable air movement
• Saturated ,still air , above body temperature
• Effects of prolonged exposure
 Introduction

1. Our daily life cycle states the activity , fatigue and recovery it is
essential that the mind and body recovers through recreation,
rest and sleep to counter balance the mental and physical
activities
2. This cycle is often impeded by unfavorable conditions resulting
stress on body and mind causes discomfort, loss of efficiency and
eventually lead to break down of health
3. The effect of climate on man, is therefore a factor of
considerable importance.
4. So it is challenge of designer to strive towards the optimum of
total comfort
 The body’s heat production

• Heat is continuously produced by the body

• Most of the bio chemical process involved in tissue building
,energy conversion and muscular work are exotherm.
• All energy and material requirement of body are supplied
from the consumption and digestion of food
• The process of converting food into the living matter or useful
form of energy are known as metabolism
• Of all energy produced ,Only about 20% of utilized, the
remaining is surplus heat and must be dissipated to the
environment
The following table indicates the rate of excess heat output of the
body in various activities
 The body’s heat loss

• The body temperature must remain balanced and constant

around 37 degree Celsius.
• The body can release heat to its environment by convention,
radiation and evaporation .
• Convention is due to heat transmission from the body to the
air in contact with skin or clothing (based on the air
movement)
• Radiant heat loss depends on the temperature of the body
surface and the temperature of opposing surface
• Evaporation heat loss is governed by the rate of evaporation
depends on the humidity of air
Body heat exchange
Thermal balance of body
 Heat loss(disspation) in various thermal
environments indoor condition
Calm ,warm air, moderate humidity :
• When the air temperature is around 18*c and the air is calm
• Air velocity is 0.25m/s and humidity is between 40 and 60%
• Person engaged in the sedentary works will dissipate the
surplus heat without any difficulties
By radiation 45%
By convection 30%
By evaporation 25%

If the temperature of bounding surface is approximately the same

as the air temperature.
 Heat loss(disspation) in various thermal
environments indoor condition
Hot air and considerable radiation:
• The normal skin temperature is between 31 and 34*c
• Hot air condition the air temperature reaches 34*c there will
be no more convective heat loss
• Average temperature of opposing surface is below skin
surface there will be some radiation heat loss
• When both the convective and radiant elements in the heat
exchange process are positive thermal balance still be
maintained by evaporation up to limit. provided the air dry to
permit to a high evaporation rate .
 Heat loss(disspation) in various thermal
environments indoor condition
Hot air, radiation and appreciable air movement:
• When the air is hot the convention element is positive
• When the radiant element is positive
• When the air movement is positive will accelerate the
evaporation
• Assume the case: if the air is completely saturated and
warmer than the skin ,air movement would increase
discomfort and heat gain .
5. Effective Temperature –comfort zone
1. Search for a comfort scale

2. Effective temperature(ET)

3. Corrected effective Temperature (CET)

4. The comfort zone

 Search for comfort scale

• The designer wants to access the effect of climatic condition

on the body heat dissipation processes.
• Having difficulty to handle Four independent variables
simultaneously .(air temperature, humidity, radiation and air
movement)
• So in order to devise a single scale which combines the effects
of these four factors such scales are referred as comfort scales
 Effective Temperture

• The first scale was produced by houghton and yaglou in 1932

working at the American society of heating and ventilating
engg
• There findings are plotted on a psychometric chart ,producing
equal comfort lines.
• They named the new scale as effective temperature and it
can be defined as the temperature of a still ,saturated
atmosphere which would in the absence of radiation
produce the same effect as the atmosphere in question
• In 1947 yaglou slightly revised the scale but other
modification also became generally accepted.
 Corrected Effective Temperture

• Whilst the ET scale integrates the effects of three variables –

originally of temperature and humidity but later includes the
air movement –
• Corrected effective temperature scale also includes radiation
effects
 The Comfort zone

• The range of conditions within which at least 80% of the

people would feel comfortable can be termed as comfort zone