PHY 151: Lecture 4

 Dynamics History
 4.1 The Concept of Force
 4.2 Newton’s First Law
 4.3 Mass
 4.4 Newton’s Second Law
 4.5 Gravitational Force and Weight
 4.6 Newton’s Third Law
 4.7 Using Newton’s Second Law
 PHY 151: Lecture 4
The Laws of Motion

Dynamics History
 Dynamics History - 1
• Aristotle (384 BC to 322 BC)
• Observed nature, philosophized about nature, did no experiments
• Natural Motion (sub-lunar)
– Elements earth, air, water, and fire seek their natural place
– Earth / water move straight down, air / fire move straight up
• Natural Motion (supralunar)
– Heavenly bodies are made from a fifth element, quintessence
– The natural state is circular motion
• Violent Motion
– Objects are moved by force
• The normal state of motion on earth is rest
• Heavy objects have a greater desire to reach their natural place
than light objects and therefore fall faster
• Speed of fall depends inversely on density of medium it falls through
• No vacuum, because object would move through it with infinite
speed
• These statements accepted in Europe for nearly 2,000 years
 Dynamics History - 2
• Beginning with Medieval Europe and continuing into the
Renaissance, some Europeans and Muslims made contributions to
dynamics
• Abu Sahl al-Quhi (Kuhi) (1000)
– Discovers that heaviness of bodies vary with their distance from
center of Earth
• Ibn al-Haytham (1000 – 1037)
– Discusses the theory of attraction between masses
– Seems that he was aware of the magnitude of acceleration due to
gravity
– Discovered the law of inertia, known as Newton's first law of motion,
when he stated that a body moves perpetually unless an external
force stops it or changes its direction of motion
• Avicenna (1000-1037)
– Father of the fundamental concept of momentum in physics
– Discovered the concept of momentum, when he referred to impetus
as being proportional to weight times velocity, a precursor to the
concept of momentum in Newton's second law of motion
– His theory of motion was also consistent with the concept of inertia
in Newton's first law of motion
 Dynamics History – 3
• Abu Rayhan al-Biruni (1000 – 1048)
– Was the first to realize that acceleration is connected with non-
uniform motion
• Ibn Bajjah (Avempace) (1100 – 1138)
– First to state that there is always a reaction force for every force
exerted
– Precursor to Gottfried Leibniz's idea of force which underlies
Newton's third law of motion
– His theory of motion later has an important influence on later
physicists like Galileo Galilei
• Hibat Allah Abu'l-Barakat al-Baghdaadi (1100 – 1165)
– Writes a critique of Aristotelian philosophy and Aristotelian physics
– First to negate Aristotle's idea that a constant force produces
uniform motion, as he realizes that a force applied continuously
produces acceleration, which is considered "the fundamental law of
classical mechanics" and an early foreshadowing of Newton's
second law of motion
– Like Newton, he described acceleration as the rate of change of
velocity
 Dynamics History – 4
• Al-Khazini (1121)
– Publishes The Book of the Balance of Wisdom, in
which he is the first to propose that the gravity and
gravitational potential energy of a body varies
depending on its distance from the center of the Earth
– This phenomenon is not proven until Newton's law of
universal gravitation
– One of the first to clearly differentiate between force,
mass, and weight
– He and his Muslim predecessors unified statics and
dynamics into the science of mechanics
– The contributions of al-Khazini and his Muslim
predecessors to mechanics laid the foundations for
the later development of classical mechanics in
Renaissance Europe
 Dynamics History – 5
• Jean Boridan (1355)
– The concept of inertia was alien to the physics of Aristotle
– Aristotle held that a body was only maintained in motion by the action of a
continuous external force
– In the Aristotelian view, a projectile moving through the air owed its continuing
motion to eddies or vibrations in the surrounding medium
– Jean Buridan proposed that motion was maintained by some property of the
body, imparted when it was set in motion
– Buridan named the motion-maintaining property impetus
– He rejected the view that the impetus dissipated spontaneously asserting
that a body would be arrested by the forces of air resistance and gravity
which might be opposing its impetus
– Buridan further held that the impetus of a body increased with the speed with
which it was set in motion, and with its quantity of matter
– Buridan's impetus is related to the modern concept of momentum
– Buridan saw impetus as causing the motion of the object
– Buridan anticipated Isaac Newton when he wrote:
• ...after leaving the arm of the thrower, the projectile would be moved by an
impetus given to it by the thrower and would continue to be moved as long as
the impetus remained stronger than the resistance, and would be of infinite
duration were it not diminished and corrupted by a contrary force resisting it or
by something inclining it to a contrary motion
 Dynamics History – 6
• Niccolo Tartaglia (1537)
– First to apply mathematics to the investigation of the paths of cannonballs
– His work was later validated by Galileo’s studies on falling bodies
• Giambattista Benedetti (1553)
– Benedetti proposed a new doctrine of the speed of bodies in free fall
– The accepted Aristotelian doctrine at that time was that the speed of a freely
falling body is directly proportional to the total weight of the body and inversely
proportional to the density of the medium
– As opposed to the Aristotelian theory, his theory predicts that two objects of the
same material but of different weights would fall at the same speed, and also that
objects of different materials in a vacuum would fall at different though finite
speeds
– In a second edition of the Demonstratio (1554), he extended this theory to
include the effect of the resistance of the medium, which he said was
proportional to the cross section or the surface area of the body
– Two objects of the same material but of different surface areas would only fall at
equal speeds in a vacuum
– It is thought that Galileo derived his initial theory of the speed of a freely falling
body from his reading of Benedetti's works
– The account found in Galileo's De motu, his early work on the science of motion,
follows Benedetti's initial theory as described above
– In this early work, Galileo also subscribes to the theory of impetus
 Dynamics History - 7
• Giovanni Benedetti (1553, 1585)
– He stated that bodies composed of the same material fell at the
same speed regardless of their weight
– At this time Aristotle’s views were accepted without question
– What Benedetti was putting forward was in complete
contradiction to Aristotle
– Those who read Benedetti's work did not accept his ideas
– Some argued that his idea was stupid
– Other agreed with his findings but said that they must be in
agreement with Aristotle
– Benedetti himself remarks that he had critics in Rome who said
that Aristotle was always right, so his work must be wrong
• Simon Stevin (1586)
– Demonstrated that two objects of different weight fall down with
exactly the same acceleration
 Dynamics History - 8
• Galileo Galilei (1564 – 1642)
• Used reasoning, thought experiments and actual experiments
• Mostly developed kinematics
• Developed concept of acceleration
• Falling objects accelerate uniformly, and fall with the same speed
• Air retards falling objects such as a feather
• Distance traveled by objects under uniform acceleration increases
by t2
• Motion of a projectile falling freely under gravity is compound
consisting of uniform motion horizontally and uniform accelerating
motion vertically
• Law of Inertia:
– Objects want to move in a straight line with constant velocity
– Objects don’t stop moving when the force is removed
– Friction force stops motion
– Unbalanced forces keep objects from moving in a straight line
with constant velocity
 Dynamics History - 9

• Isaac Newton (1643 – 1727)

– Law of Gravity
– Laws of Motion
– Established modern study of optics
– First reflecting telescope
– Invented Calculus
– Alchemy
 PHY 151: Lecture 4
The Laws of Motion

4.1
The Concept of Force
 The Concept of Force -1
• Contact forces involve physical contact
between two objects (a, b, c)
• Field forces act through empty space (d, e ,f)
• No physical contact is required
 The Concept of Force -2
• A spring can be used to calibrate the
magnitude of a force
• Forces are vectors, so you must use the rules
for vector addition to find the net force acting
on an object
The Concept of Force -3
 The Concept of Force - 4
• Gravitational force
– Between objects
• Electromagnetic forces
– Between electric charges
• Nuclear force
– Between subatomic particles
• Weak forces
– Arise in certain radioactive decay processes
• Note: These are all field forces
 The Concept of Force - 5
• In the course we will consider five forces
Gravity
Electromagnetism
• Normal
• Friction
• Tension
• Push / Pull
 PHY 151: Lecture 4
The Laws of Motion

4.2
Newton’s First Law
 Newton’s First Law - 1

• If an object does not interact with other

objects, it is possible to identify a
reference frame in which the object has
zero acceleration
• This is also called the law of inertia
• It defines a special set of reference frames
called inertial frames
• We call this an inertial frame of reference
 Newton’s First Law – 2
• Any reference frame that moves with constant
velocity relative to an inertial frame is itself an
inertial frame
• A reference frame that moves with constant
velocity relative to the distant stars is the best
approximation of an inertial frame
• We can consider the Earth to be such an
inertial frame although it has a small
centripetal acceleration associated with its
motion
 Newton’s First Law - 3
• In the absence of external forces, when
viewed from an inertial reference frame,
an object at rest remains at rest and an
object in motion continues in motion with a
constant velocity
– Newton’s first law describes what happens in
the absence of a force
– It also tells us that when no force acts on an
object, the acceleration of the object is zero
 Newton’s First Law - 4
• The tendency of an object to resist any attempt
to change its velocity is called inertia
• Mass is that property of an object that specifies
how much resistance an object exhibits to
changes in its velocity
 Newton’s First Law - 5
• Two observers, one on the ground (G) and the
other on a train (T).
• Imagine that you place a puck on a perfectly level
air hockey table.
• You expect that the puck will remain stationary
when it is placed gently at rest on the table.
• Now imagine putting your air hockey table on a
train moving with constant velocity.
• If the puck is placed on the table, the puck again
remains where it is placed.
• The observer is in an inertial frame of reference.
 Newton’s First Law - 6
• When the puck is on the air hockey table on the
ground, you are observing (G) it from an inertial
reference frame; there are no horizontal
interactions of the puck with any other objects, and
you observe it to have zero acceleration in the
horizontal direction.
• When you are on a train moving at constant
velocity, you are also observing (T) the puck from
an inertial reference frame.
• Any reference frame that moves with constant
velocity relative to an inertial frame is itself an
inertial frame.
 Newton’s First Law - 7
• When the train accelerates, however, you are
observing (T) the puck from a noninertial
reference frame because you and the train are
accelerating relative to the inertial reference frame
of the surface of the earth.
• Although the puck appears to be accelerating
according to your observations, we can identify a
reference frame in which the puck has zero
acceleration.
 Newton’s First Law - 8
• For example, an observer (G) standing outside
the train on the ground sees the puck sliding
relative to the table but always moving with the
same velocity with respect to the ground as the
train had before it started to accelerate (because
there is almost no friction to “tie” the puck and
train together.)
• Therefore, Newton’s first law is still satisfied even
though your observers say otherwise.
 Newton’s First Law – 9

• Rocket is in deep space

• No gravity
• No air inside rocket
• A ball is at top of rocket
• Rocket begins to accelerate
up

Observer outside rocket

 Newton’s First Law - 10

• Outside rocket observer

sees:
– the rocket accelerate up
– the ball not moving
– no force on the ball
• Outside observer sees that
Newton’s First Law is
obeyed
• Outside observer is in an Observer outside rocket

inertial frame of reference

 Newton’s First Law - 11
• Astronaut sees:
– the ball accelerate towards
the bottom of rocket
– no force on the ball
• Ball is accelerating with no
force
• Newton’s First Law is not
obeyed
• Astronaut must believe that
a new fictitious force has Observer outside rocket

suddenly been turned on

 Newton’s First Law - 12

• A frame of reference that is

accelerating relative to an
inertial frame of reference is
a non-inertial frame of
reference
• In a non-inertial frame of
reference, Newton’s First
Law is not obeyed unless a
fictitious force is assumed Observer outside rocket
 PHY 151: Lecture 4
The Laws of Motion

4.3
Mass
 Mass - 1

• Mass is an inherent property of an object

– It is independent of the object’s surroundings
• Mass is independent of the method used
to measure it
– Mass is a scalar quantity
– The SI unit of mass is kg
 Mass - 2

• Mass and weight are two different

quantities
• Weight is equal to the magnitude of the
gravitational force exerted on the object
• Weight will vary with location
• The mass of an object is the same
everywhere
 PHY 151: Lecture 4
The Laws of Motion

4.4
Newton’s Second Law
 Newton’s Second Law – 1

• The acceleration of an object is directly

proportional to the net force acting on it
and inversely proportional to its mass
• Force is the cause of change in motion, as
measured by the acceleration
• In equation form:

wheremeans the sum

 Newton’s Second Law – 2

• Newton’s second law can be expressed in terms

of components:

• The analysis model used in conjunction with

Newton’s second law is the particle under a net
force
 Newton’s Second Law – 3

• SI unit of force is newton:

1 N = 1 kg·m/s2
 Newton’s Second Law - 4
• Newton’s Statement of the Law
– A measure of motion is momentum = p = mv
– The greater the “motion” the greater is mv
– Rate of change of momentum = F

 F = p/t =(mv)/t = [(mv)f – (mv)i]/t

– When viewed from an inertial reference frame

– Force, momentum and velocity are vectors
 F means sum of external forces
 Newton’s Second Law - 5

• Contemporary Statement of the Law

– Mass does not change, then
 F = p/t =(mv)/t = mv/t = ma

 F = ma
 Example 4.1
A hockey puck having a mass of 0.30 kg
slides on the frictionless, horizontal surface
of anice rink. Two hockey sticks strike the
puck simultaneously, exerting
 the forces
on the puck. The force F 1 has a magnitude
of 5.0 N, and the force F2 has
a magnitude of 8.0 N.
Determine both the magnitude
and the direction of the puck’s
acceleration.
 Example 4.1

• Find the component of the net force acting on

the puck in the x direction:

• Find the component of the net force acting on

the puck in the y direction:
 Example 4.1

• Find the magnitude of the acceleration:

• Find the direction of the acceleration relative

to the positive x axis:
 PHY 151: Lecture 4
The Laws of Motion

4.5
The Gravitational Force and Weight
 The Gravitational Force and Weight - 1

i The gravitational force, Fg , is the force that
the Earth exerts on an object.
• This force is directed toward the center of the
Earth
• Its magnitude is called the weight of the object
Weight = Fg = mg
• Because it is dependent on g, the weight
varies with location
• g, and therefore the weight, is less at higher
altitudes
The Gravitational Force and Weight – 2

• In Newton’s Laws, the mass is the inertial

mass and measures the resistance to a
change in the object’s motion
• In the gravitational force, the mass is
determining the gravitational attraction
between the object and the Earth
– Experiments show that gravitational mass and
inertial mass have the same value
 PHY 151: Lecture 4
The Laws of Motion

4.6
Newton’s Third Law
 Newton’s Third Law - 1

• Newton’s third law states:


×If two objects interact, the force F12 exerted by
object 1 on object 2 is equal in magnitude
 but
opposite in direction to the force F21 exerted by
object 2 on object 1: 
F12 =- F21
 Newton’s Third Law – 2

• Forces always occur in pairs

– A single isolated force cannot exist
• The action force is equal in magnitude to
the reaction force and opposite in direction
– One of the forces is the action force, the other
is the reaction force
– It doesn’t matter which is considered the
action and which the reaction
– The action and reaction forces must act on
different objects and be of the same type
 Newton’s Third Law - 3

i The force F12 exerted by object 1 on object 2
is equal in magnitude
 and opposite in direction
to the force F21 exerted by object 2 on object 1
 Newton’s Third Law - 4

i The force Fhn exerted by the hammer on
the nail is equal in magnitude
 and opposite
in direction to the force Fnh exerted by the
nail on the hammer.
 Newton’s Third Law - 5
i Consider a computer monitor

sitting on a desk: Fg =FEm
(force exerted by Earth on
 monitor)

×Reaction force: FmE =- FEm
i Monitor doesn't accelerate
because of force from table,

called
 the
 normal force, n:
n =Fg or n =m g
 Newton’s Third Law - 6
• The normal force and the
force of gravity are the
forces that act on the
monitor
• In a free-body diagram,
you want the forces
acting on a particular
object
• Let the object be a
represented by a point
 PHY 151: Lecture 4
The Laws of Motion

4.7
Using Newton’s Second Law
 Using Newton’s Second Law – 1

Particle in Equilibrium
• Objects at rest or moving with constant
velocity are in equilibrium

• The vector sum of all forces (net force) acting

on an object is zero
• In terms of components:
 Using Newton’s Second Law – 2
Particle Under a Net Force
• If an object experiences an acceleration:

• Consider a crate being pulled to the right:

 Using Newton’s Second Law – 3
• Free-body diagram of crate:
– Normal force
– Tension force
– Gravitational force
• Apply Newton’s second law:
 Example 4.2
• A traffic light weighing 122 N hangs
from a cable tied to two other cables
fastened to a support. The upper
cables make angles of 37.0 and
53.0 with the horizontal. These
upper cables are not as strong as
the vertical cable and will break if
the tension in them exceeds 100 N.
Does the traffic light remain hanging
in this situation, or will one of the
cables break?
 Example 4.2
– Apply Newton’s second law to the
traffic light in the y direction:

– Resolve forces acting on the knot into

their components:
 Example 4.2
– Apply the particle in equilibrium model to the knot:

– Solve Equation (1) for T2 in terms of T1:

– Substitute into Equation (2)

• Both values are less than 100 N, so cables won’t break

 Example 4.3
A car of mass m is on an icy driveway inclined at an
angle .
 Example 4.3
(A) Find the acceleration of the car, assuming
the driveway is frictionless.
– Apply Newton’s second law in component form:

– Solve for ax:

 Example 4.3
(B) Suppose the car is released from rest at the top
of the incline and the distance from the car’s front
bumper to the bottom of the incline is d. How long
does it take the front bumper to reach the bottom of
the hill, and what is the car’s speed as it arrives
there?
 Example 4.3
– Use d = ½axt2 and solve for t:

– Use vxf = 2axd to find velocity:

x
2
 Example 4.4
When two objects of unequal
mass are hung vertically over a
frictionless pulley of negligible
mass, the arrangement is called
an Atwood machine. The device
is sometimes used in the
laboratory to determine the
value of g. Determine the
magnitude of the acceleration of
the two objects and the tension
in the lightweight string.
Example 4.4
 Example 4.4
• Solve for the acceleration:

• Substitute Equation (3) into Equation

(1):
 Example 4.5
Two blocks of masses m1 and m2, with m1 > m2,
are placed in contact with each other on a
frictionless, horizontal surface. A constant
horizontal force is applied to m1.
 Example 4.5
(A) Find the magnitude of the acceleration of
the system.
•Model the combination of two blocks as a single
particle under a net force, and apply Newton's second
law in the x direction:
 Example 4.5
(B) Determine the magnitude of the contact
force between the two blocks.
– Construct free-body diagrams of
each block
– Apply Newton’s second law to m2:

– Substitute the acceleration found in (A)

into Equation (2):
 Example 4.6
A person weighs a fish of mass m on a spring
scale attached to the ceiling of an elevator.
 Example 4.6
(A) Show that if the elevator accelerates either
upward or downward, the spring scale gives a
reading that is different from the weight of the
fish.
– Apply Newton’s second law to the fish:

– Solve for T:
 Example 4.6
(B) Evaluate the scale readings for a 40.0-N
fish, if the elevator moves with an acceleration
ay = 62.00 m/s2.
• Evaluate for upward acceleration:

• Evaluate for downward acceleration: