Chapter 12

Composites

8-1
 Introduction

• Every material is composite at one or the other

level.
• A composite material is a material system, a
mixture or combination of two or more micro or
macroconstituents that differ in form and
composition and do not form a solution.
• Properties of composite materials can be superior
to its individual components.
• Examples: Fiber reinforced plastics, concrete,
asphalt, wood etc.

8-2
 C o m p o s it e s

P a r t ic le - r e in fo r c e d F ib e r - r e in fo r c e d S tru c tu ra l

L a rg e - D is p e r s io n - C o n t in u o u s D is c o n t in u o u s L a m in a t e s S a n d w ic h
p a r t ic le s tre n g th e n e d ( a lig n e d ) (s h o rt) p a n e ls

A lig n e d R a n d o m ly
o r ie n t e d
 Terminology/Classification

• Composites: woven
-- Multiphase material w/significant fibers
proportions of each phase.
• Matrix:
-- The continuous phase
-- Purpose is to: 0.5 mm
- transfer stress to other phases cross
- protect phases from environment section
-- Classification: MMC, CMC, PMC view
metal ceramic polymer
• Dispersed phase: 0.5 mm
-- Purpose: enhance matrix properties.
MMC: increase y, TS, creep resist.
CMC: increase Kc
PMC: increase E, y, TS, creep resist.
-- Classification: Particle, fiber, structural
 Particle-reinforced Fiber-reinforced Structural
• Examples:
- Spheroidite matrix: particles: Adapted from Fig.

steel ferrite () cementite 10.19, Callister 7e.

(Fig. 10.19 is
(ductile) (Fe3 C) copyright United
States Steel
(brittle) Corporation, 1971.)
60 m
Adapted from Fig.
- WC/Co matrix: particles: 16.4, Callister 7e.

cemented cobalt WC (Fig. 16.4 is courtesy

Carboloy Systems,
(ductile) (brittle,
carbide Vm : hard)
Department, General
Electric Company.)

10-15 vol%! 600 m

Adapted from Fig.
16.5, Callister 7e.
- Automobile matrix: particles: (Fig. 16.5 is courtesy
tires rubber C Goodyear Tire and
(compliant) (stiffer)
Rubber Company.)

0.75 m
Concrete – gravel + sand + cement
- Why sand and gravel? Sand packs into gravel voids

Reinforced concrete - Reinforce with steel rod or mesh

- increases strength - even if cement matrix is cracked

Pre-stressed concrete - mesh under tension during setting of

concrete. Tension release puts concrete under compressive force
- Concrete much stronger under compression.
- Applied tension must exceed compressive force

mesh
• Elastic modulus, Ec, of composites:
-- two approaches. upper limit: “rule of mixtures”
Ec = VmEm + VpEp
E(GPa)
Data: 350
lower limit:
Cu matrix 30 0
w/tungsten 250 1 Vm Vp
= +
particles 20 0 Ec E m E p
150

0 20 40 60 80 10 0 vol% tungsten
(Cu) (W)

• Application to other properties:

-- Electrical conductivity, e: Replace E in equations with e.
-- Thermal conductivity, k: Replace E in equations with k.
 Particle-reinforced Fiber-reinforced Structural
• Fibers very strong
– Provide significant strength improvement to
material
– Ex: fiber-glass
• Continuous glass filaments in a polymer matrix
• Strength due to fibers
• Polymer simply holds them in place
• Fiber Materials
– Whiskers - Thin single crystals - large length to diameter ratio
• graphite, SiN, SiC
• high crystal perfection – extremely strong, strongest known
• very expensive
– Fibers
• polycrystalline or amorphous
• generally polymers or ceramics
• Ex: Al2O3 , Aramid, E-glass, Boron, UHMWPE
– Wires
• Metal – steel, Mo, W
 Fiber Alignment

aligned aligned random

continuous discontinuous
• Aligned Continuous fibers
• Examples:
-- Metal: '(Ni3Al)-(Mo) -- Ceramic: Glass w/SiC fibers
by eutectic solidification. formed by glass slurry
matrix: (Mo) (ductile) Eglass = 76 GPa; ESiC = 400 GPa.

(a) fracture
surface

From F.L. Matthews and R.L.

2 m Rawlings, Composite Materials;
Engineering and Science, Reprint
fibers:  ’ (Ni3Al) (brittle) (b)
ed., CRC Press, Boca Raton, FL,
2000. (a) Fig. 4.22, p. 145 (photo by
J. Davies); (b) Fig. 11.20, p. 349
(micrograph by H.S. Kim, P.S.
Rodgers, and R.D. Rawlings). Used
with permission of CRC
Press, Boca Raton, FL.
• Discontinuous, random 2D fibers
• Example: Carbon-Carbon C fibers:
-- process: fiber/pitch, then very stiff
burn out at up to 2500ºC. very strong
-- uses: disk brakes, gas (b)
C matrix:
turbine exhaust flaps, nose less stiff
cones. view onto plane less strong
fibers lie
(a) in plane

• Other variations:
-- Discontinuous, random 3D
-- Discontinuous, 1D
• Critical fiber length for effective stiffening & strengthening:
fiber strength in tension fiber diameter
f d
fiber length  15 shear strength of
c fiber-matrix interface
• Ex: For fiberglass, fiber length > 15 mm needed
• Why? Longer fibers carry stress more efficiently!
Shorter, thicker fiber: Longer, thinner fiber:
d f d
fiber length  15 f fiber length  15
c c
(x) (x)

Adapted from Fig.

16.7, Callister 7e.

Poorer fiber efficiency Better fiber efficiency

 Composite Strength: Longitudinal Loading

Continuous fibers - Estimate fiber-reinforced

composite strength for long continuous fibers in a
matrix
• Longitudinal deformation
c = mVm + fVf but isostrain c = m = f

volume fraction

 Ece = Em Vm + EfVf longitudinal (extensional)

modulus
Ff EfVf f = fiber

Fm E mVm m = matrix
 Composite Strength: Transverse Loading

• In transverse loading the fibers carry less of the

load - isostress
 c = m =  f =  c= mVm + fVf

1 Vm Vf
   transverse modulus
Ect E m Ef
 Equation for Elastic Modulus of Lamellar Composite

• Isostrain condition: Stress on composite causes uniform

strain on all composite layers.
Pc = Pf + Pm Pc = Load on composite
Pf = Load on fibers
Pm = load on matrix
σ = P/A
σcAc = σfAf + σmAm

Since length of layers are equal,

σcVc = σfVf + σmVm Where  Vcc, Vfand
f VV  mV
f m are volume
fractions (Vc =1)   m

c f m
Since strains εc = εf = εm,
Rule of mixture of binary composites
Ec = EfVf + EmVm
 Loads on Fiber and Matrix Regions

• Since σ = Eε and εf = εm

Pf  f Af E f  f Af E f Af EfVf
   
Pm  m Am E m  m Am E m Am E mVm

Pc = Pf + Pm

• From above two equations, load on each of fiber and

 Isostress Condition

• Stress on the composite structure produces an equal stress

condition on all the layers.
σc = σf + σm
ε c = εf + εm

Assuming no change in area

Figure 11.15
and assuming unit length of the composite
  
εc = εfVf + εmVm c  , f  , m 
Ec Ef Em
But
 V f Vm
 
Ec Ef Em
Therefore
 Elastic Modulus for Isostress Condition

• We know that  V f Vm

 
Ec Ef Em

• Dividing by σ
1 V f Vm
 
Ec E f Em
1 V f E m Vm E f
 
Ec E f Em Em E f Figure 11.16
• Higher modulus values are
E f Em obtained with isostrain
Ec  loading for equal volume of
V f E m  Vm E f
fibers
• Estimate of Ec and TS for discontinuous fibers:
fd
-- valid when fiber length  15
c
-- Elastic modulus in fiber direction:
Ec = EmVm + KEfVf
efficiency factor:
-- aligned 1D: K = 1 (aligned )
-- aligned 1D: K = 0 (aligned )
-- random 2D: K = 3/8 (2D isotropy)
-- random 3D: K = 1/5 (3D isotropy)

-- TS in fiber direction:
(TS)c = (TS)mVm + (TS)fVf (aligned 1D)
 Particle-reinforced Fiber-reinforced Structural
• Stacked and bonded fiber-reinforced sheets
-- stacking sequence: e.g., 0º/90º
-- benefit: balanced, in-plane stiffness

• Sandwich panels
-- low density, honeycomb core
-- benefit: small weight, large bending stiffness
face sheet
adhesive layer
honeycomb

Adapted from Fig. 16.18,

Callister 7e. (Fig. 16.18 is
from Engineered Materials
Handbook, Vol. 1, Composites, ASM International, Materials Park, OH, 1987.)
 Polymer Matrix Composite (PMC)

• Glass fiber reinforced plastic composite materials

have high strength-weight ratio, good dimensional
stability, good temperature and corrosion
resistance and low cost.
 ‘E’ Glass : 52-56% SiO2, + 12-16% Al2O3,
16-25% CaO + 8-13% B2O3
 Tensile strength = 3.44 GPa, E = 72.3 GPa

 ‘S” Glass : Used for military and aerospace

application.
 65% SiO2 + 25% Al2O3 + 10% MgO
 Tensile strength = 4.48 GPa, E = 85.4 GPa
• Produced by drawing monofilaments from a
furnace and gathering them to form a strand.
• Strands are held together with resinous binder.
• Properties: Density
and strength are lower
than carbon and aramid
fibers.
• Higher elongation.
• Low cost and hence
commonly used.
 Fiber Reinforced-Plastic Composite Materials

• Fiberglass-reinforced polyester resins:

 Higher the wt% of glass, stronger the reinforced
plastic is.
 Nonparallel alignment of glass fibers reduces
strength.
• Carbon fiber reinforced epoxy resins:
 Carbon fiber contributes to rigidity and strength
while epoxy matrix contributes to impact strength.
 Polyimides, polyphenylene sulfides are also used.
 Exceptional fatigue properties.
 Carbon fiber epoxy material is laminated to meet
strength requirements.
 Properties of Fiber Reinforced Plastics

Fiberglass polyester

(Carbon fibers and epoxy)

 Aramid Fibers for Reinforcing Plastic Resins

• Aramid = aromatic polyamide fibers.

• Trade name is Kevlar
 Kevlar 29:- Low density, high strength, and used for ropes and
cables.
 Kevlar 49:- Low density, high strength and modulus and used for
aerospace and auto applications.
Table 11.1

• Hydrogen bonds bond fiber together.

• Used where resistance to fatigue, high
strength and light weight is important.
Fatigue Characteristics of Fiber Reinforced Plastics

Lamination
 Ceramic-Matrix Composites (CMCs)

• Continuous fiber reinforced CMCs:

 SiC fibers are woven into mat and SiC is impregnated
into fibrous mat by chemical vapor deposition.
 SiC fibers can be encapsulated by a glass ceramic.
 Used in heat exchanger tube and thermal protection
system.
• Discontinuous and particulate reinforced CMCs:
 Fracture toughness is significantly increased.
 Fabricated by common process such as hot isolatic
pressing.
 Portland Cement

• Production: Lime (CaO), Silica (SiO2), alumina(Al2O3)

and iron oxide (Fe2O3) are raw materials.
• Raw materials are crushed, ground and proportional for
desired composition and blended.
• Mixture is fed into rotary kiln and heated to 1400-16500C
and then cooled and pulverized.
• Chemical Composition:
 Types of Portland Cement

• Types of Portland cement differ by composition.

• Type I: Used when high sulfate attack from soil and
water, and high temperature are absent.
 Examples: Sidewalks, buildings, bridges.
• Type II: Used in case of moderate sulfate attack as in case
of drainage.
• Type III: Early strength type for quick use.
• Type IV: Low heat of hydration type and used when rate
and heat generated must be minimized.
• Type V: Used for heavy sulfate attack as in case of
groundwater.
 Hardening of Portland Cement

• Tricalcium silicate and dicalcium silicate constitute 75% of

portland cement.
• Hydration reactions:
2C3S + H2O C3S2.3H2O + 3Ca(OH)2
2C2S + 4H2O C3S2.3H2O + Ca(OH)2

Tricalcium silicate hydrate

• C3S is responsible for early strength.

• Most of compressive strength is
developed in 28 days.
• Strengthening might continue
for years
 Compressive Strength

• Compressive strength is higher than tensile strength and

depends up on settled time.
• High water content reduces compressive strength.
• Air entrainment improves workability and hence water
content can be reduced.

Air
Bubbles
 Toughening Mechanisms in CMCs

• Toughening is due to fibers interfering with crack

propagation.
 Crack deflection: Up on encountering
reinforcement, crack is deflected making
propagation more meandering.
 Crack bridging: Fibers bridge the crack and help
to keep the cracks together.
 Fiber pullout: Friction caused by pulling out the
fiber from matrix results in higher toughness.
 Metal Matrix Composites (MMCs)
• Continuous fiber reinforced MMCs: Continuous fibers are
reinforced in metal matrix – used in aerospace, auto
industry and sports equipments.
• Example:- Aluminum alloy – Boron fiber composite
 Boron fiber is made by depositing boron vapor on tungsten
substrate.
 Boron fibers are hotpressed between aluminum foils.
 Tensile strength of Al6061 increases from 310 to 1417GPa and E
increases from 69 to 231 GPa
Tungsten filament

Boron
 Discontinuous fiber and particulate reinforced MMCs

• Particulate reinforced MMCs: Irregular shaped alumina

and silicon carbide particulate are used.
 Particulate is mixed into molten aluminum and cast into ingots or
billets.
 Al 6061 + 20% SiC Tensile strength increased to 496 MPa
‘E’ increased to 103 GPa
• Discontinuous fiber reinforced MMcs: Needle like SiC
whiskers (1-3 micron diameter, 20-200 micron in length)
are mixed with metal powder.
 Mixture is consolidated by hot pressing
and then forged or extruded.
 Tensile strength of Al 6061 increases to
480 MPa and ‘E’ increases to 115 GPa
 Composite Benefits

• CMCs: Increased toughness • PMCs: Increased E/

Force ceramics
particle-reinf 103
E(GPa) PMCs
102
10 metal/
fiber-reinf metal alloys
1
un-reinf
.1 G=3E/8 polymers
.01 K=E
Bend displacement .1 .3 1 3 10 30
10
-4 Density,  [mg/m3]
ss (s-1) 6061 Al
• MMCs: 10 -6 Adapted from T.G. Nieh, "Creep rupture of
Increased a silicon-carbide reinforced aluminum
composite", Metall. Trans. A Vol. 15(1), pp.
creep 10
-8 6061 Al 139-146, 1984. Used with permission.

resistance w/SiC
whiskers
(MPa)
10 -10
20 30 50 100 200
 Open Mold Process for Fiber Reinforced Plastics

• Hand lay-up process:

 Gel coat is applied to open mold.
 Fiberglass reinforcement is
placed in the mold.
 Base resin mixed
with catalysts is
applied by pouring
brushing or spraying.
• Spray-up process: Continuous
strand roving is fed by chopper
and spray gun and chopped
roving and catalyst resin is
deposited in the mold.
 Vacuum Bag-Autoclave
Vacuum andFilament
Bag-Autoclave and Filament Winding
Winding

• Vacuum bag-autoclave process:

 Long thin sheet or prepeg carbon-fiber epoxy material is laid on
the table.
 The sheet is cut and laminate is constructed.
 Laminate is put in vacuum bag to remove entrapped air and
cured in autoclave.
• Filament winding:
 Fiber reinforcement is fed
through resin bath and
wound around suitable
mandrel.
 Mandrel is cured and mold part is stripped from mandrel.
 Closed Mold Process

• Compression and injection molding:

 Same as in polymers except that the fiber reinforcement is mixed
with resin.
• Sheet molding compound process:
 Highly automated continuous molding process.
 Continuous strand fiberglass
roving is chopped and deposited
on a layer of resin-filler paste.
 Another layer of paste is
deposited on first layer.
 Sandwich is compacted
and rolled into rolls.
 Sheet Molding

• The rolled up sheet is stored in a maturation room for 1-4

days.
• The sheets are cut into proper size and pressed in hot mold
(1490C) to form final product.
• Efficient, quick, good quality and uniformity.
• Continuous protrusion: Continuous strand fibers are
impregnated in resin bath, fed into heated die and drawn.
• Used to produce
beams, channels,
and pipes.