PAVEMENT EVALUATION

• Pavement evaluation is conducted to determine functional and structural

conditions of a highway section either for purposes of routine monitoring or
planned corrective action.
• All the pavements deteriorate with time, with repeated application of
vehicular loads and due to effect of vehicular parameters.
• The rate of deterioration depends on the initial condition, traffic loading,
climatic condition and other parameters.
• Need for maintenance and rehabilitation can be assessed on the basis of
evaluation.
Need of Pavement Evaluation

• At the network level, routine evaluations can be used to develop

performance models and prioritize maintenance or rehabilitation
efforts and funding.
• At the project level, evaluations are more focused on establishing the
root causes of existing distress in order to determine the best
rehabilitation strategies.
Methods of Pavement Evaluation 

• Structural condition : It is concerned with the structural capacity of

the pavement as measured by deflection, layer thickness, and material
properties.
• Functional condition : It is primarily concerned with the ride quality
or surface texture of a highway section.
Structural Evaluation of pavement

• It is related to the structural soundness of the structure or the

load carrying ability of the structure.
• It can be measured normally in terms of the response of the
pavement when it is subjected to a load.
• Structural evaluation of pavements can be done either
destructive test or non-destructive test.
Destructive Test
• Destructive test provides more detailed data about the pavement which is not
possible to obtain through non-destructive test.
• Bitumen extraction test :
 It is a quality control test which provides methods of extracting the bitumen
from the mixed material.
 This test is done to determine the bitumen content of the pavement as per
ASTM 2172.
Non Destructive Test
•  Non-destructive test is the collective term for evaluations conducted on an
existing pavement structure that do not require subsequent maintenance
work to return the pavement to its pre-testing state.
• Some of the Non Destructive Tests (NDT) are as follows :

a) Benkelman beam method

b) Falling Weight Deflectometer (FWD)
Benkelman Beam method

• It is used to measure the rebound deflection of a flexible pavement due to a

dual wheel load assembly or the design wheel load.
• Deflection measurements are made at 20 points in a kilometre. The points
are to be staggered at 50 meter interval on both directions.
• The loading is applied by a truck having rear axle load of 8.17 tonnes and
tire pressure of 5.6 kg/sq.cm.
Benkelman Beam
Falling Weight Deflectometer
• A falling weight deflectometer (FWD) is primarily used to estimate
pavement structural capacity for overlay design.
• An impulsive load is applied on the road surface.
• The instantaneous deflections of the road surface is measured at a number
of points at different distances radially outward from the centre of the
falling weight. Thus, the shape of deflection bowl is obtained.
Functional Evaluation of Pavement

• The ability of pavement to provide comfortable, safe, economical riding to

the users.
• The surface condition of flexible pavement can be evaluated by the ruts,
patches, cracks and unevenness, whereas, the surface condition of rigid
pavement can be evaluated by the faulty joints and cracks developed.
• It can be measured in terms of present serviceability index (PSI),
roughness, skid resistance.
Present Serviceability Index
• Visual condition surveys cover aspects of both functional and
structural pavement condition, but generally serve as a
qualitative indicator of overall condition.
• A PSI was defined to be an algebraic function of Present
serviceability rating (PSR) correlates.
The serviceability indicators are given as follows :-
Roughness
• Roughness or ride quality is a measure of the unevenness of
the pavement surface along a linear plane.
• It represents the ability of the pavement to provide a
comfortable ride to the users.
• It is expressed in surface roughness measured by a Bump
Integrator.
Bump Integrator
 Principles of Overlay Design
• An overlay design is different from the design of a new pavement, as in the
overlay design, strength of the existing pavement is to be evaluated
whereas in the pavement design, strength of the subgrade on which
pavement is to be constructed is to be evaluated.

• The various steps involved in overlay design are:

1. Estimation of the traffic to be carried by the overlaid pavement.

2. Measurement and estimation of the strength of the existing pavement.
3. Determination of the thickness and type of the overlay.
 Overlay Design for Flexible Pavements
• The strength of existing flexible pavements is evaluated by measurement of
deflection via Benkelman Beam Deflection method.
• This method measures deflection without disturbing the pavement structure
with speed and efficiency.
• According to IRC guidelines, the method is based on the assumption that
there is a strong correlation between surface deflection and the stresses and
strains developed in the layered system of the flexible pavement. However,
surface deflection is not uniquely related to pavement strength.
• It is believed that pavement performance is closely related to the elastic
deflection that the pavement undergoes when it is subjected to a standard
load.
• Elastic deformation under standard loading conditions depends on various
parameters such as the condition of the subgrade, its moisture content,
degree of compaction and the condition of various other layers including
granule layers, bituminous layers and also it depends upon various climatic
conditions like temperature, position of drainage, thickness of various layers
and quality of different materials .
Deflection Measurements
• Deflection measurements are very sensitive to temperatures.
• The IRC guidelines recommend that deflection measurements are
related to a standard temperature of 35o C. However, readings are
taken when temperature is not always 35o C.
• The correction of deflection measurements is 0.0065mm for each
degree of temperature, greater or less than 35o C. The correction will
be positive for temperatures lower than and negative for temperatures
greater than 35o C.
• For higher altitude areas, an ambient temperature of 20 oC is
recommended with no correction.
• Deflection measurements should be taken when the subgrade is in
moist condition.
• If measurements are taken in dry season, correction factor is to be applied.
For clayey soils, the correction factor may be taken as 2 whereas for sandy
subgrade, it is taken between 1.2 to 1.3.

• After applying the above corrections, the ’corrected characteristic

deflection’ is determined which represents the stability of the pavement
stretch at the standard temperature of 35o C and the highest subgrade
moisture content at the location of the road during the monsoon season.
• •  The IRC guidelines recommend the following allowable deflections:
Design traffic in the Allowable Deflection
10 year design period CGRA method WASHO method
(commercial vehicle/
day)

150-450 1.50 mm 1.40 mm

450-1500 1.25 mm 1.10mm
1500-4500
• If the characteristic 1.00 is
deflection mm greater than 1.80 mm
the allowable deflection, th
overlay is determined by the following formula:

h= thickness of granular overlay (WBM) in mm

Dc = characteristic deflection
D = allowable deflection
R = constant, whose value is taken as 550
• However, according to latest IRC guidelines, a set of curves is used to de
thickness. The thickness is in terms of bituminous macadam constructio
Overlay thickness Design Curves I.R.C.
 Design Steps
••   The data collected during BBD studies are analysed and the values of me
deviation and the characteristic deflection, Dc are determined for each ro
• The modified value of characteristic deflection is determined by applying
pavement temperature and (ii) subgrade moisture content.
• With the known values of initial traffic, annual growth rate, VDF, lane
desired design life of the overlay, the design value of CSA is determined u

Where N = initial traffic, number of commercial vehicles per day in the

overlay construction
F = VDF value expressed as number of standard axles per commercial vehicl
D = lane distribution factor
r = annual growth rate of commercial vehicles
n =Desired design life of the overlay, years
• Using the overlay design chart, select the appropriate design curve representing
the design value of CSA; if necessary, an interpolated curve may be made use of.
• Corresponding to the corrected value of characteristic deflection on the X-axis of
the chart and using the selected design curve, obtain the overlay thickness on the
Y – axis which is given in terms of Bituminous macadam (BM) overlay.
• Making use of the equivalency factors of the other overlay materials, the BM
overlay is converted into desired types of overlay. In case other materials are
used, the following conversion factors are adopted:
1 cm of bituminous macadam = 1.5cm of WBM/WMM/BUSG
= 0.7cm of DBM/ BC/ SDBC
Strengthening of Existing Flexible Pavement by
Overlays
• Flexible overlay over flexible pavements:
It can be done in either of the two ways depending on the site conditions and thickness
requirements:
 Removal of thin bituminous surfacing and re-compaction, laying 170 mm wet mix
macadam, application of prime coat and tack coat, laying 50mm dense bituminous
macadam (DBM) binder course and laying 40mm bituminous concrete surface course.
In this method, there is considerable saving in quantity of bitumen binder. However,
this alternative may be preferred only if the expected traffic is not very heavy and if
the overall construction cost is substantially lesser than the second alternative.

 Patching the existing pot-holes and cracked areas, filling up the ruts, application of
tack coat where required and laying 50 to 75 mm BM as lower binder course, laying
75mm DBM binder course and 50mm BC surface course. In this method, the total
requirement of bitumen binder is high. But the strengthening work can be carried out
without removing the existing thin bituminous surfacing and further the work can be
completed faster with less disruption to traffic movement.
 Strengthening of Existing Flexible
Pavement by Overlays
• The practice of strengthening flexible pavement using CC overlay is termed as ‘white
topping’.
• The main features of this technique are:
 The interface between the bituminous surface and the CC overlay is either bonded or
partially bonded.
 There is composite action in the bonded system.
 There is a reduction in load stress in the CC overlay.
• Three methods of white topping are available:
1. Conventional white topping
2. Thin white topping
3. Ultra thin white topping
Strengthening of Existing Flexible Pavement
by Overlays
• Conventional White Topping:
 The preparation of existing bituminous surface is done by patching of potholes and
removal of ruts, shoving and other irregularities.
 In order to minimize temperature stresses on the CC overlay, a ‘white wash’ or white
curing compound is applied on the prepared bituminous surface.
 A polythene sheet is not laid above the prepared bituminous pavement to serve as
separation layer or for de-bonding the two layers.
 The CC overlay is laid directly over the prepared bituminous pavement surface so that
partial bond develops between the bituminous surface and the CC overlay.
 After laying the CC layer, curing compound is applied, the joints are cut after the
designated time interval and the curing is continued as specified, before opening to
traffic.
 The spacing between transverse contraction joints is generally 4.0 to 4.5 ; the spacing
between longitudinal joints is equal to the lane width (3.5 to 3.75m).
 Strengthening of Existing Flexible Pavement by
Overlays
• Thin and ultra thin white topping:
 The continuity of support of the existing bituminous pavement is essential so the surface
should be in sound condition.
 Sufficient bond is allowed to develop between the prepared bituminous surface and the
thin/ ultra-thin white topping layer. The bonded system provides ‘composite action’
between the CC and bituminous layer and the neutral axis gets shifted downwards; this
causes a greater area of the CC slab coming under compression, requiring lesser slab
thickness for carrying the same load.
• Thin white topping: thickness of this topping generally from 100 to 200 mm. High strength
cement concrete with fibres are commonly used. Closer joint spacing is adopted, ranging
between 0.6 to 1.25m (generally 1m* 1m spacing is provided. These overlays are
recommended for roads with medium to moderately heavy traffic volume with axle loads
up to 10.2 tonnes.
• Ultra – thin white topping: the thickness of these overlays are generally less than 100 mm.
High strength CC with fibre are used and the joint spacing is at close intervals of 0.6 to 1.25
m (generally 0.6m * 0.6 m or 0.9m* 0.9m spacing is adopted between the joints. These
overlays are suitable for low volume roads with axle loads less than 6 tonnes.
Overlay Design for Rigid Pavements
• Concrete pavements develop structural cracks if they are under designed or
have been subjected to heavy traffic.
• These slabs can be rehabilitated with a rigid or a flexible overlay, thus giving
them a further lease of useful life.
• Overlays over CC pavements can be provided as:
 CC overlay over CC pavement
 Flexible overlay over CC pavement
 CC overlay over CC pavement
1. Bonded or monolithic overlays: Thin overlay slab is bonded on to the existing slab
after specially preparing the existing surface through acid-etching or scarifying, using
cold milling machines equipped with silicon carbide teeth and mortar coating. Such
overlays act monolithically with the original slab and hence need the minimum
thickness.
2. Partially bonded overlay: in which the overlay slab is placed directly over the existing
slab after cleaning the surface.
3. Unbonded overlay: consists of a thick slab laid over a separation course. The
separation course is laid over the existing slab. The overlay slab acts independently of
the underlying concrete slab.
Thin bonded overlays (minimum thickness 25 mm) are not recommended where the
existing slab has severely failed. Partially bonded overlays (minimum thickness 120mm)
are also not recommended if the existing slab has severely failed. Unbonded overlays of a
minimum thickness of 150mm can be provided over badly failed slabs too.
Steel reinforcement is not normally used in thin bonded overlays. In partially bonded
overlays, steel requirement is independent of the steel in the existing pavement. In
unbonded overlays, steel requirement is entirely independent of steel in the existing
pavement.
 Design of CC overlay over CC pavement
•Empirical
  formulae for design given by the Corps of Engineers and the Federa
• Unbonded overlay: Corps of Engineers and F.A.A. formula

• Partially bonded overlay:

F.A.A. formula

Corps of Engineers formula

• Fully bonded overlay:

Where ho= overlay thickness required (inches)

hm = thickness of monolithic slab required (inches)
he= thickness of existing pavement slab (inches)
C= pavement condition factor
= 1.00 when existing pavement is in good condition
= 0.75 when the existing pavement shows initial cracking
= 0.35 when the existing pavement is badly cracked
 Flexible overlays over CC pavement
• Flexible overlays can also be provided over inadequate concrete slabs. The disadvantage of this
specification is that reflection cracks appear on the bituminous overlay. This can be eliminated only
if the thickness of the overlay is over 125mm.
• I.R.C. recommendations for flexible overlays are given below:
A. For areas of medium rainfall (40-125 cm per annum), favourable drainage conditions and low
plasticity of soil (<14)
i. For very heavy traffic (>1500 commercial vehicles per day)
a) 7.5 cm Bituminous Macadam under 4 cm Asphaltic Concrete
Or
b) 15 cm granular layer under 4 cm Asphaltic Concrete
ii. For heavy and medium traffic (151 -1500 commercial vehicles per day)
a) 7.5 cm Bituminous Macadam under 2 cm premix carpet with seal coat
Or
b) 7.5 cm Built up Spray Grout (BUSG) under 2 cm premix with seal coat (for medium heavy traffic
only)
Or
c) 15 cm granular layer under 2 cm premix carpet with seal coat
Or
d) 7.5 cm granular layer under 4 cm Asphaltic Concrete
 Flexible overlays over CC pavement
B. For areas with high intensity of rainfall (exceeding 125cm and up to 200 cm per
annum), unfavourable drainage conditions and subgrade of high plasticity (P.I. 20 and
above)
i. For very heavy traffic (exceeding 1500 commercial vehicles per day) : 10 cm
Bituminous Macadam under 4 cm Asphaltic Concrete
ii. For heavy and medium heavy traffic ( 151-1500 commercial vehicles per day): 7.5
cm Bituminous Macadam under 4 cm Asphaltic concrete
C. For areas of very heavy traffic in areas where the rainfall is more than 200 cm per
annum, unfavourable drainage conditions and subgrade of high plasticity:
iii. 5 cm coated macadam with 40mm single size aggregate mixed with 2.5 – 3.0
percent bitumen under 7.5 cm B.M. with 4.0cm A.C. as wearing course
Or
ii. 11 cm B.M. with 4 cm A.C. as wearing course.
 Design of overlay of Purav Marg Jn.38 to Jn.
43, Chandigarh.

Study Area
• 1. Tribune Chowk- Transport Chowk
• 2. Transport Chowk –Tribune Chowk
Traffic Volume Studies
• The traffic survey was conducted and the number of commercial vehicles was found to
be 6581.
Procedure For Deflection Survey
• The pavement deflection is measured by the Benkleman Beam which consists of a
standard beam 3.66 m long pivoted at a distance of 2.44m from the top.
• By suitably placing the probe between the dual wheels of a loaded truck, it is possible
to measure the rebound deflection of the pavement structure.
• While the rebound deflection is related to pavement performance, the residual
deflection may be due to non-recoverable deflection of the pavement or because of the
influence of the deflection bowl on the front legs of the beam.
 Laboratory Studies
• Field Moisture Determination
The field moisture content is needed to estimate the moisture correction factor. The soil subgrade samples collected from
each kilometer of test section were brought in the laboratory in tight polythene bags. The average Moisture content
determined later in the laboratory was 7.0%.

Determination of Overlay Thickness

• Determination of Characteristic Deflection
Overlay design for a given section is based on individual deflection values but on a statistical analysis of all the
measurements in the section corrected for temperature and seasonal variation. This involves calculation of mean deflection,
standard deviation and characteristic deflection as given below:

Mean deflection x‾ = ∑xi / n (1)

 
Standard deviation σ = √ (x- x‾) / (n-1) (2)
 
Characteristic deflection is given by
 
Dc = x‾ + 2 σ, for NH & SH
 
And Dc = x‾ + 2 σ, for all other roads

Where, x = individual deflection values (mm) 

x‾ = mean deflection (mm)
n = number of deflection measurements
σ = standard deviation (mm), and
Dc = characteristic deflection (mm)
• The tables below show the details of the characteristics deflection for all the sections
on two roads.
S.No. Chainage Section 1 Chainage Section 2
(Km) (Km)
1 0.00 0.143 1.10 0.122
2 0.05 0.149 1.15 0.013
3 0.10 0.156 1.20 0.013
4 0.15 0.178 1.25 0.096
5 0.20 0.004 1.30 0.353
6 0.25 0.665 1.35 0.245
7 0.30 0.196 1.40 0.267
8 0.35 0.123 1.45 0.016
9 0.40 0.016 1.50 0.209
10 0.45 0.134 1.55 0.136
11 0.50 0.010 1.60 0.093
12 0.55 0.013 1.65 0.850
13 0.60 0.066 1.70 0.022
14 0.65 0.003 1.75 0.057
15 0.70 0.001 1.80 0.044
16 0.75 0.114 1.85 0.052
17 0.80 0.123 1.90 0.048
18 0.85 0.131 1.95 0.037
19 0.90 0.122 2.00 0.021
20 0.95 0.102 2.05 0.062
21 1.00 0.032 2.10 0.017
22 1.05 0.070 2.15 0.015
Mean deflection
0.116 0.127
( mm)
S.D (mm) 0.138 0.187
Characteristic Deflection (mm) 0.392 0.501
Moisture Correction Factor 1.04 1.04
Corrected Characteristic
0.408 0.521
Deflection
Overlay(mm) in terms of B.M. ------- 10
 S.No. Chainage Section 1 Chainage Section 2
(Km) (Km)
1 0.00 0.188 1.10 0.121
2 0.05 0.088 1.15 0.131
3 0.10 0.094 1.20 0.116
4 0.15 0.325 1.25 0.162
5 0.20 0.366 1.30 0.119
6 0.25 0.015 1.35 0.053
7 0.30 0.140 1.40 0.138
8 0.35 0.126 1.45 0.034
9 0.40 0.071 1.50 1.067
10 0.45 0.042 1.55 0.147
11 0.50 0.012 1.60 0.101
12 0.55 0.026 1.65 0.248
13 0.60 0.119 1.70 0.129
14 0.65 0.147 1.75 0.132
15 0.70 0.221 1.80 0.166
16 0.75 0.318 1.85 0.183
17 0.80 0.140 1.90 0.163
18 0.85 0.141 1.95 0.090
19 0.90 0.101 2.00 0.149
20 0.95 0.098 2.05 0.325
21 1.00 0.006 2.10 0.233
22 1.05 0.361 2.15 0.114
Mean deflection( mm) 0.143 0.187
S.D (mm) 0.111 0.206
Characteristic Deflection (mm)
0.365 0.599
Moisture Correction Factor
1.04 1.04
Corrected Characteristic Deflection
0.379 0.622

Overlay(mm) in terms of B.M. -------- 50

 Temperature Correction Factor
• The stiffness of bituminous layers changes with temperature of the binder and
consequently the surface deflections of a given pavement will vary depending upon
the temperature of the layers. For the purpose of design, it is necessary that the
measured temperature be corrected to a common standard temperature. The standard
temperature for Indian conditions in plain areas is recommended as 35 degree
Centigrade. However, for hilly areas with more than 1300 m high altitude, no
temperature correction is to be applied. The only precaution is that the temperature at
the time of testing should be more than 20 degree centigrade.

Moisture Correction Factor

• Since the pavement deflection is dependent upon change in the climatic season of the
year, it is always desirable to take deflection measurements during the season when
the pavement is in its weakest condition (immediately after monsoon). When the
deflections are measured during other period of the year, they require a correction
factor which is defined as the ratio of the maximum deflection immediately after the
monsoon to that of minimum deflection in the dry months. The moisture correction
factor is estimated using the values of plasticity index and moisture content of the
subgrade soil. Depending upon the PI values Curve 1 of IRC: 81-1997 was used. The
value of this factor is found to be 1.04.
 Corrected Values of Characteristic Deflection
• The ideal time of Benkelman Beam deflection studies is after monsoon season. So the characteristic
deflection was corrected by multiplying it with moisture correction factor.

Estimation of Cumulative Number of Standard Axles (CSA)

• Estimation of Traffic Volume

• The average value of commercial traffic has been taken as 6581 commercial vehicle per day from the 7-
day traffic count data given by client department. The design distribution factor has been taken as 0.6. So,
the corrected values of commercial vehicle per day (A) come out to be 3849.

• Computation of Cumulative Number of Standard Axles

• The cumulative number of standard axles (in million standard axles) has been worked out using the
procedure laid down in article 5.4.1 of IRC: 81-1997 as per following details:

Ns = 365 A [(1+r) x -1] / r

 Where,
Ns = cumulative number of standard axles to be catered in the design
A = corrected traffic
R = traffic growth factor (=7.5%)
X = design period from the present date (=10 years)
F = vehicle damage factor (=4.5)
Using the values of A, r, x and F, Ns is calculated as 92 million standard axles (msa)

Finally, from the analysis of the deflection data as per IRC 81:1997 and IRC 37:2001 the overlay has been
designed.