HIGHWAY AND TRAFFIC

ENGINEERING
(CE - 4805)

Pavement Materials, Standards and

Specifications
 
Engr. Ghulam Yaseen
Department of Civil Engineering
University of Lahore ,Sihala Campus, Islamabad (UOL ISB)
 Pavement
 Generally pavement is considered a footpath at the side of a road, but in
engineering language a “ PAVEMENT “ is a man-made surface provided
for efficient, easy and safe movement of human beings and
objects/vehicles across the ground.
 But in technically it may be defined as:
 A multi-layer system that distributes the vehicular loads over a larger area.
 Structure which separates the tires of vehicles from the under lying
foundation.
 Highway pavement is a structure consisting of superimposed layers of
selected and processed materials whose primary function is to distribute
the applied vehicle load to the sub grade.
 But in broad sense, it may also be define as:
 Pavement is the upper part of roadway, airport or parking area structure.
 It includes all layers resting on the original ground.
 It consists of all structural elements or layers, including shoulders.
Old Concept Of Pavement
Modern Concept Of Pavement
 Pavement Materials: Soil
 Pavements are a collection of materials. These materials,
their associated properties, and their interactions determine
the properties of the resultant pavement.
 Thus, a good understanding of these materials, how they
are characterized, and how they perform is fundamental to
understanding pavement.
 The materials which are used in the construction of
highway are of intense interest to the highway engineer.
 This requires not only a thorough understanding of the soil
and aggregate properties which affect pavement stability
and durability, but also the binding materials which may be
added to improve these pavement features.
Sub-Grade Soil
 Soil is an accumulation or deposit of earth material,
derived naturally from the disintegration of rocks or
decay of vegetation, that can be excavated readily
with power equipment in the field or disintegrated by
gentle mechanical means in the laboratory.
 The supporting soil beneath pavement and its special
under courses is called sub grade.
 Undisturbed soil beneath the pavement is called
natural sub grade.
 Compacted sub grade is the soil compacted by
controlled movement of heavy compactors.
Desirable Properties
The desirable properties of sub grade soil as a
highway material are:
 Stability
 Incompressibility
 Permanency of strength
 Minimum changes in volume and stability under
adverse conditions of weather and ground water.
 Good drainage, and
 Ease of compaction
 Soil Types

 The wide range of soil types available as highway

construction materials have made it obligatory on the part
of the highway engineer to identify and classify
different soils.
 A survey of locally available materials and soil types
conducted in Pakistan revealed wide variety of soil types,
gravel, moorum and naturally occurring soft aggregates,
which can be used in road construction.
 Broadly, the soil types can be categorized as Laterite soil,
Moorum / red soil, Desert sands, Alluvial soil, Clay
including Black cotton soil.
Standard Grain Size Soil
Classification
 Gravel: These are coarse materials with particle size under 2.36
mm with little or no fines contributing to cohesion of materials.
 Moorum: These are products of decomposition and weathering
of the pavement rock. Visually these are similar to gravel except
presence of higher content of fines.
 Silts: These are finer than sand, brighter in color as compared to
clay, and exhibit little cohesion.
 When a lump of silty soil mixed with water, alternately squeezed
and tapped a shiny surface makes its appearance, thus dilatancy is
a specific property of such soil.
 Clays: These are finer than silts. Clayey soils exhibit stickiness,
high strength when dry, and show no dilatancy.
 Black cotton soil and other expansive clays exhibit swelling and
shrinkage properties.
 Paste of clay with water when rubbed in between fingers leaves
stain, which is not observed for silts.
 Tests on Soil
 Sub grade soil is an integral part of the road pavement
structure as it provides the support to the pavement from
beneath.
 The sub grade soil and its properties are important in the
design of pavement structure.
 The main function of the sub grade is to give adequate
support to the pavement and for this the sub grade should
possess sufficient stability under adverse climatic and loading
conditions.
 The tests used to evaluate the strength properties of soils may
be broadly divided into three groups:
 Shear Tests
 Bearing Tests
 Penetration Tests
 Table: Classification of Soil-Aggregate Mixtures (with Suggested Subgroups)

General Granular Materials Silt-Clay Materials

Classification (35% or less passing No. 200) (More than 35% passing No. 200)

A-1 A-3 A-2 A-4 A-5 A-6 A-7

Group
Classification A-7-5;
A-1-a A-1-b A-2-4 A-2-5 A-2-6 A-2-7
A-7-6

Sieve Analysis:
% Passing:
No. 10
50 Max.
No. 40
30 Max. 50 Max. 51 Min.
No.200
15 Max. 25 Max. 10 Max. 35 Max. 35 Max. 35 Max. 35 Max. 36 Min. 36 Min. 36 Min. 36 Min.

Fraction passing
No.40:
Liquid Limit 40 Max. 41 Min. 40 Max. 41 Min. 40 Max. 41 Min. 40 Max. 41 Min.
Plasticity Index
6 Max N.P.
10 Max. 10 Max. 11 Min. 11 Min. 10 Max. 10 Max. 10 Min. 11 Min.

Group Index 0 0 0 4 Max. 8 Max. 12 Max. 16 Max. 20 Max.

Usual Types of
Significant Stone Fragments Fine Silty or Clayey Silty Clayey
Constituent Gravel and Sand Sand Gravel Sand Soils Soils
Materials

General Rating
Excellent to Good Fair to Poor
as Subgrade
Shear Tests

Shear tests are usually carried out on relatively

small soil samples in the laboratory.
In order to find out the strength properties of
soil, a number of representative samples from
different locations are tested.
Some of the commonly known shear tests are
direct shear test, triaxial compression test, and
unconfined compression test.
Bearing Tests

Bearing tests are loading tests carried out on sub

grade soils in-situ with a load bearing area.
The results of the bearing tests are influenced by
variations in the soil properties within the
stressed soil mass underneath and hence the
overall stability of the part of the soil mass
stressed could be studied.
Plate Load Test
R-Value Test
Penetration Tests
 Overview of Aggregates

 Aggregate is a collective term for the mineral

materials such as sand, gravel, and crushed stone that
are used with a binding medium (such as water,
bitumen, Portland cement, lime, etc.) to form
compound materials (such as bituminous concrete and
Portland cement concrete).
 By volume, aggregate generally accounts for 92 to 96
percent of Bituminous concrete and about 70 to 80
percent of Portland cement concrete.
 Aggregate is also used for base and sub-base courses
for both flexible and rigid pavements.
Aggregates can either be natural or manufactured.
Natural aggregates are generally extracted from
larger rock formations through an open
excavation (quarry).
Extracted rock is typically reduced to usable sizes
by mechanical crushing.
Manufactured aggregate is often a bye product of
other manufacturing industries.
The requirements of the aggregates in pavement
are also discussed in this lecture.
 Desirable Properties
Strength
 The aggregates used in top layers are subjected to (i) Stress
action due to traffic wheel load, (ii) Wear and tear, (iii)
crushing.
 For a high quality pavement, the aggregates should posses
high resistance to crushing, and to withstand the stresses
due to traffic wheel load.
Hardness
 The aggregates used in the surface course are subjected to
constant rubbing or abrasion due to moving traffic.
 The aggregates should be hard enough to resist the abrasive
action caused by the movements of traffic.
 The abrasive action is severe when steel tyred vehicles
moves over the aggregates exposed at the top surface.
 Toughness
 Resistance of the aggregates to impact is termed as
toughness.
 Aggregates used in the pavement should be able to resist
the effect caused by the jumping of the steel tyred wheels
from one particle to another at different levels causes
severe impact on the aggregates.
 Shape of Aggregates
 Aggregates which happen to fall in a particular size range
may have rounded, cubical, angular, flaky or elongated
particles.
 It is evident that the flaky and elongated particles will have
less strength and durability when compared with cubical,
angular or rounded particles of the same aggregate.
 Hence too flaky and too much elongated aggregates should
be avoided as far as possible.
 Adhesion with Bitumen
 The aggregates used in bituminous pavements should
have less affinity with water when compared with
bituminous materials, otherwise the bituminous
coating on the aggregate will be stripped off in
presence of water.
 Durability
 The property of aggregates to withstand adverse action
of weather is called soundness.
 The aggregates are subjected to the physical and
chemical action of rain and bottom water, impurities
there-in and that of atmosphere, hence it is desirable
that the road aggregates used in the construction
should be sound enough to withstand the weathering
action
 Aggregate Sources
 Aggregates can come from either natural or manufactured sources.
Natural aggregates come from rock, of which there are three broad
geological classifications (Roberts, et al., 1996):
 Igneous rock.  These rocks are primarily crystalline and are
formed by the cooling of molten rock material beneath the earths
crust (magma).
 Sedimentary rocks.  These rocks are formed from deposited
insoluble material (e.g., the remains of existing rock deposited on
the bottom of an ocean or lake). This material is transformed to
rock by heat and pressure.  Sedimentary rocks are layered in
appearance and are further classified based on their predominant
mineral as calcareous (limestone, chalk, etc.), siliceous (chert,
sandstone, etc.) or argillaceous (shale, etc.).
 Metamorphic rock.  These are igneous or sedimentary rocks that
have been subjected to heat and/or pressure great enough to change
their mineral structure so as to be different from the original rock
 Aggregate Production

Aggregates are produced in a quarry or mine

whose basic function is to convert in situ rock into
aggregate with specified characteristics. 
Usually the rock is blasted or dug from the quarry
walls then reduced in size using a series of screens
and crushers. 
 Some quarries are also capable of washing the
finished aggregate. 
This section shows the basic process flow via a
picture gallery of a typical quarry.
Chemical Properties
 While relatively unimportant for loose aggregate, aggregate
chemical properties are important in a pavement material. 
 In HMA, aggregate surface chemistry can determine how well an
asphalt cement binder will adhere to an aggregate surface. 
 Poor adherence, commonly referred to as stripping, can cause
premature structural failure. 
 In PCC, aggregates containing reactive forms of silica can react
expansively with the alkalis contained in the cement paste. 
 This expansion can cause cracking, surface popouts and spalling. 
 Note that some aggregate chemical properties can change over
time, especially after the aggregate is crushed. 
 A newly crushed aggregate may display a different affinity for
water than the same aggregate that has been crushed and left in a
stockpile for a year.
 
 Stripping (HMA)
 Although the displacement of asphalt on the aggregate particle surface by
water (stripping) is a complex phenomena and is not yet fully
understood, mineralogy and chemical composition of the aggregate have
been established as important contributing factors (Roberts et al., 1996). 
 In general, some aggregates have an affinity for water over asphalt
(hydrophilic).  These aggregates tend to be acidic and suffer from
stripping after exposure to water.  On the other hand, some aggregates
have an affinity for asphalt over water (hydrophobic). 
 These aggregates tend to be basic and do not suffer from stripping
problems. 
 Additionally, an aggregates surface charge when in contact with water
will affect its adhesion to asphalt cement and its susceptibility to
moisture damage. 
 In sum, aggregate surface chemistry seems to be an important factor in
stripping.  However, specific cause-effect relationships are still being
established.
HMA Stripping
Alkali-Aggregate Reaction (PCC)

Alkali-aggregate reaction is the expansive reaction

that takes place in PCC between alkali (contained
in the cement paste) and silica elements within an
aggregate. 
The most common is an alkali-silica reaction. 
This reaction, which occurs to some extent in most
PCC, can result in map or pattern cracking,
surface popouts and spalling if it is severe enough.
Popouts

Spalling
 The Mechanism for this Alkali-Silica Reaction
Proposed by Diamond
 Initial alkaline depolymerization and dissolution of reactive silica. 
Cement (a high-alkali substance) can increase the solubility of non-
crystalline silica and the rate at which it dissolves.  Additionally, the
cement will raise the pH of the surrounding medium which will affect the
crystalline silica.
 Formation of a hydrous alkali silicate gel.  The initial dissolution of
reactive silica then opens up the aggregate pore structure and allows more
silica to dissolve into solution.  The end result is alkali-silica gel that is
formed in place.  This gel formation is not expansive itself but it does
destroy the integrity of the aggregate particle. 
 Attraction of water by the gel.  The gel attracts considerable amounts of
water and expands.  If the expansion is great enough, the resulting stress
will crack the now-weakened aggregate and surrounding cement paste.
 Formation of a gel colloid.  After the gel ingests enough water, the water
takes over and the substance becomes an alkali-silica gel disbursed in a
water fluid.  This fluid then escapes to surrounding cracks and voids and
may partake in secondary reactions.
 The Reaction can be Controlled by:
 Avoiding susceptible aggregates.  Local experience may
show that certain types of rock contain reactive silica.  Typically
rock types that may be susceptible are: siliceous limestone, chert,
shale, volcanic glass, synthetic glass, sandstone, opaline rocks
and quartzite.  River rock is also typically susceptible. 
 Pozzolanic admixture.  By reacting with the calcium
hydroxide in the cement paste, a pozzolan can lower the pH of
the pore solution.  Additionally, the silica contained in a
pozzolan may react with the alkali in the cement.  This reaction is
not harmful because it essentially skips the expansive water
attraction step.
 Low-alkali cement.  Less alkali available for reaction will limit
gel formation.
 Low water-cement ratio.  The lower the water-cement ratio,
the less permeable the concrete.  Low permeability will help limit
the supply of water to the alkali-silica gel
 Physical Properties

 Aggregate physical properties are the most readily

apparent aggregate properties and they also have the
most direct effect on how an aggregate performs as
either a pavement material constituent or by itself as a
base or sub-base materials.
 Gradation and size
 Toughness and abrasion resistance
 Aggregate Impact and Crushing Value
 Durability and soundness
 Particle shape and surface texture
 Specific gravity and water absorption
 Cleanliness and deleterious materials
Gradation and Size
 The particle size distribution, or gradation, of an aggregate
is one of the most influential aggregate characteristics in
determining how it will perform as a pavement material. 
 In HMA, gradation helps determine almost every
important property including stiffness, stability, durability,
permeability, workability, fatigue resistance, frictional
resistance and resistance to moisture damage (Roberts et
al., 1996). 
 In PCC, gradation helps determine durability, porosity,
workability, cement and water requirements, strength, and
shrinkage. 
 Because of this, gradation is a primary concern in HMA
and PCC mix design and thus most agencies specify
allowable aggregate gradations for both.
Standard Sieve Analysis Tests

AASHTO T 27 and ASTM C 136: Sieve

Analysis of Fine and Coarse Aggregates
AASHTO T 11 and ASTM C 117: Materials
Finer Than 75-mm (No. 200) Sieve in Mineral
Aggregate by Washing
AASHTO T 30: Mechanical Analysis of
Extracted Aggregate (this is used for aggregate
extracted from bituminous mixtures)
 Toughness and Abrasion Resistance
 Aggregates undergo substantial wear and tear throughout
their life. 
 In general, they should be hard and tough enough to resist
crushing, degradation and disintegration from any
associated activities including manufacturing, stockpiling,
production, placing, compaction (in the case of HMA) and
consolidation (in the case of PCC) (Roberts et al., 1996). 
 Furthermore, they must be able to adequately transmit
loads from the pavement surface to the underlying layers
(and eventually the subgrade). 
 Aggregates not adequately resistant to abrasion and
polishing will cause premature structural failure and/or a
loss of skid resistance.
 Standard L.A. Abrasion Tests

AASHTO T 96 and ASTM C 131: Resistance to

Degradation of Small-Size Coarse Aggregate by
Abrasion and Impact in the Los Angeles Machine
ASTM C 535: Resistance to Degradation of
Large-Size Coarse Aggregate by Abrasion and
Impact in the Los Angeles Machine
 Aggregate Impact and Crushing Value
 Aggregate Impact Value(ASTM D5874-02)
 It gives relative strength of aggregates against impact
loading. Toughness is the property of material to resist
impact due to traffic loads.
 SPECIFICATION
 AIV less than 10% = exceptionally strong
 AIV 10-20% = strong
 AIV 20-30% = satisfactory for road construction
 Aggregate Crushing Value ( BS 812 & IS 383-2386)
 It measures the crushing value of aggregates.
 ACV less than 30% = Base Course
 ACV less than 15% = Wearing Course
 Durability and Soundness
 Aggregates must be resistant to breakdown and
disintegration from weathering (wetting/drying and
freezing/thawing) or they may break apart and cause
premature pavement distress. 
 Durability and soundness are terms typically given to an
aggregates weathering resistance characteristic. 
 Aggregates used in HMA are dried in the production
process and therefore should contain almost no water. 
 Thus, for aggregate used in HMA, freezing/thawing should
not be a significant problem. 
 This is not true for aggregate used in PCC or as base and/or
subbase courses. 
 These aggregates typically contain some water (on the order
of 0.1% to 3% usually) and are not dried prior to use.
Standard Soundness Tests

AASHTO T 104 and ASTM C 88: Soundness of

Aggregates by Use of Sodium Sulfate or
Magnesium Sulfate
AASHTO T 103: Soundness of Aggregates by
Freezing and Thawing
 Particle Shape and Surface Texture
 Particle shape and surface texture are important for proper
compaction, deformation resistance, HMA workability and
PCC workability. 
 However, the ideal shape for HMA and PCC is different
because aggregates serve different purposes in each
material. 
 In HMA, since aggregates are relied upon to provide
stiffness and strength by interlocking with one another,
cubic angular-shaped particles with a rough surface texture
are best. 
 However, in PCC, where aggregates are used as an
inexpensive high-strength material to occupy volume,
workability is the major issue regarding particle shape. 
Therefore, in PCC rounded particles are better.
Particle Shape and Texture Tests
 ASTM D 3398: Index of Aggregate Particle Shape and
Texture
 Percent fractured face (or coarse aggregate angularity)
 ASTM D 5821: Determining the Percentage of
Fractured Particles in Coarse Aggregate
 Fine aggregate angularity
 AASHTO T 304 and ASTM C 1252: Uncompacted
Void Content of Fine Aggregate
 Flat or Elongated Particles
 ASTM D 4791: Flat or Elongated Particles in Coarse
Aggregate
Specific Gravity
 Aggregate specific gravity is useful in making weight-
volume conversions and in calculating the void content in
compacted HMA (Roberts et al., 1996).  AASHTO M 132
and ASTM E 12 define specific gravity as:
 "the ratio of the mass of a unit volume of a material at a
stated temperature to the mass of the same volume of gas-
free distilled water at a stated temperature."
 The commonly used "stated temperature" is 23° C (73.4°
F). 
 Given the structure of a typical aggregate particle, there
are several different kinds of specific gravity.  
 This section will first describe the structure of a typical
aggregate particle and then discuss each type of specific
gravity and its use.
Moisture Content
Since aggregates are porous (to some extent) they
can absorb moisture. 
Generally this is not a concern for HMA because
the aggregate is dried before HMA production. 
However, this is a concern for PCC because
aggregate is generally not dried and therefore the
aggregate moisture content will affect the water
content (and thus the water-cement ratio also) of
the produced PCC and the water content also
affects aggregate proportioning (because it
contributes to aggregate weight).
Specific Gravity and Water Absorption
Tests

 ASTM C 70: Surface Moisture in Fine Aggregate

 AASHTO T 85 and ASTM C 127: Specific Gravity and
Absorption of Coarse Aggregate
 AASHTO T 84 and ASTM C 128: Specific Gravity and
Absorption of Fine Aggregate
 AASHTO T 255: Total Evaporable Moisture Content of
Aggregate by Drying
 ASTM C 566:  Total Moisture Content of Aggregate by
Drying
Cleanliness and Deleterious Materials
 Aggregates must be relatively clean when used in
HMA or PCC. 
 Vegetation, soft particles, clay lumps, excess dust
and vegetable matter are not desirable because they
generally affect performance by quickly degrading,
which causes a loss of structural support and/or
prevents binder-aggregate bonding.
 AASHTO T 176: Plastic Fines in Graded Aggregates
and Soils by Use of the Sand Equivalent Test
 ASTM D 2419: Sand Equivalent Value of Soils and
Fine Aggregate
 AASHTO T 112 and ASTM C 142: Clay Lumps and
Friable Particles in Aggregate
Aggregate as a Base Material

Aggregate is often used by itself as an unbound

base or sub-base course. 
When used as such, aggregate is typically
characterized by the preceding physical
properties as well as overall layer stiffness. 
Layer stiffness is characterized by the same tests
used to characterize subgrade stiffness.
 Summary
 Aggregates are a principal material in pavement. 
 Additionally, they are often used in either stabilized or
unstabilized base/subbase courses. 
 They comprise the majority of pavement volume but only
account for a minority of total pavement material costs. 
 Therefore, a knowledge of aggregate properties is crucial to
designing a high quality pavement.
 Aggregate behavior is largely determined by aggregate
physical properties.
 In sum, accurate aggregate characterization (physical,
chemical and material) will not always ensure high quality
aggregate, but it can at least make structural and mix
designers aware of a particular aggregates characteristics,
which may aid in critical design decisions.
A Research Idea
 Quantification of Aggregates Grain Shape Characteristics
and Evaluation of Particle Size Distribution through
Digital Image Process Approach.
 The Digital Imaging Processing Systems are:
 Aggregates Images Analysis System (AIMS)
 Image-J
 Laser Scanning
 Mat-Lab
 Image Pro
 These systems work on mathematical operations by
image analysis and directly measure grain shape
properties of aggregates.
Aggregates Shape Characteristics
Image Capturing and Analysis System
 Table of Analysis Margalla Jaw Crusher Retained at 25mm

L I S Area Perimeter Flatness Elongatio Aspect Shape Form Angularity

Sr. No Sphericity Roundness
(mm) (mm) (mm) (mm)2 (mm) Ratio n Ratio Ratio Factor Factor Index

1 68.498 42.132 23 2124.16 203.433 0.546 0.615 1.674 0.428 0.645 0.59 0.597 1.55

2 43.824 37.767 20.39 1167.88 138.568 0.539 0.862 1.213 0.501 0.764 0.738 0.824 1.308

3 47.922 38.569 22.2 1201.44 165.275 0.576 0.805 1.457 0.516 0.553 0.713 0.686 1.809

4 37.678 32.156 24 868.103 128.692 0.746 0.853 1.377 0.689 0.658 0.81 0.726 1.519

5 38.213 33.848 20.89 891.794 125.523 0.617 0.886 1.266 0.581 0.712 0.79 0.79 1.405

6 57.274 34.293 20.1 1231.56 158.35 0.586 0.599 1.7 0.451 0.619 0.593 0.588 1.613

7 63.599 32.868 17.6 1305.24 168.154 0.536 0.517 2.136 0.385 0.579 0.522 0.468 1.724

8 35.451 33.224 18.4 838.509 125.93 0.554 0.937 1.489 0.542 0.663 0.785 0.672 1.506

9 73.753 36.431 15.6 1921.13 190.837 0.428 0.494 2.046 0.301 0.662 0.471 0.489 1.511

10 57.987 39.727 22.42 1632.61 181.361 0.564 0.685 1.581 0.468 0.623 0.642 0.632 1.604

11 62.441 39.816 17.2 1859.09 182.389 0.432 0.638 1.531 0.345 0.702 0.558 0.653 1.424

12 56.829 30.285 20.32 1191.65 157.002 0.67 0.533 2.225 0.489 0.607 0.576 0.45 1.646