EC368 ROBOTICS

2.1 Sensors
-sensors are used for both internal feedback control and
external interaction with the outside environment.
- In a robot, as the links and joints move, sensors such as
potentiometers, encoders, and resolvers send signals
to the controller, allowing it to determine joint values.
-To choose an appropriate sensor for a particular need, we
have to consider a number of different characteristics.
- Some of the characteristics are cost, size, weight, type of
output, interfacing, resolution, sensitivity, linearity, range,
response time, frequency response, reliability & accuracy.
-These characteristics determine the performance,
economy, ease of application, and applicability of the
sensor.
- In certain situations, different types of sensors
may be available for the same purpose.
Types and Applications of sensors in Robotics
Position sensor: Position sensors are used to measure
displacements, both angular and linear, as well as
movements. In many cases, such as in encoders, the
position information may also be used to calculate
velocities.
-Common position sensors used in robotics are
potentiometers, encoders, Linear Variable Differential
Transformer (LVDT), Resolvers, (Linear) Magnetostrictive
Displacement Transducers (LMDT or MDT), Hall-effect
Sensors
Velocity Sensors:  velocity or speed sensor measures
consecutive position measurements at known intervals
and computes the time rate of change in the position
values.
-Common velocity sensors used in robotics are encoders,
Tachometers, Differentiation of Position Signal.
Acceleration Sensors: Accelerometers are very common
sensors for measuring accelerations. However, in general,
accelerometers are not used with industrial robots.
Recently, acceleration measurements have been used for
high precision control of linear actuators and for joint
feedback control of robots.
Force and Pressure Sensors:  gives your robot the ability to
detect and process touch signals. They are used in a variety
of ways in industrial robotic applications, from collision
event detection to weight verification.
- Commonly used sensors are Piezoelectric, Force Sensing
Resistor, Strain Gauge, Antistatic Foam.
Torque Sensors: Torque can be measured by a pair of
strategically placed force sensors. Suppose that two
force sensors are placed on a shaft, opposite of each other,
on opposite sides. If a torque is applied to the shaft, it
generates two opposing forces on the shaft’s body, causing
strains in opposite directions. The two force sensors can
measure the forces, which can be converted to a torque. To
measure torques about different axes, three pairs of
mutually perpendicular sensors must be used.
Microswitches: Microswitches, though extremely simple,
are very useful and common in all robotic systems. They
cut off the electrical current, and therefore, can be used for
safety purposes, for determining contact, for sending
signals based on displacements, and many other uses.
Microswitches are robust, simple, and inexpensive.
Visible Light and Infrared Sensors: These sensors react to
the intensity of light projected onto them by changing their
electrical resistance. If the intensity of light is zero, the
resistance is at maximum. As the light intensity increases,
the resistance decreases, and consequently, the current
increases. These sensors are inexpensive and very useful.
-A phototransistor can also be used as a light sensor, where
in the presence of a certain intensity of light, it will turn on;
otherwise, it will be off. Phototransistors are usually used in
conjunction with an LED light source.
- Infrared sensors are sensitive to infrared range. Since
infrared is invisible to human eyes, it will not disturb
humans. For example, if a device needs light to measure a
large distance for navigation purposes, infrared can be used
without attracting attention or disturbing anyone.
Touch and Tactile Sensors: Touch sensors are devices that
send a signal when physical contact has been made. The
simplest form of a touch sensor is a microswitch, which
either turns on or off as contact is made.
-The microswitch can be set up for different sensitivities
and ranges of motion.
-As an example, a strategically placed microswitch can send
a signal to the controller if a mobile robot reaches an
obstacle during navigation.
-a force sensor used as a touch sensor may not only send
touch information, but also report the magnitude of the
contact force.
 A tactile sensor is a collection of touch sensors which, in
addition to determining contact, can also provide additional
information about the object. This additional
information may be about the shape, size, or type of
material.
Proximity Sensors: A proximity sensor is used to determine
that an object is close to another object before contact is
made.
- This noncontact sensing can be useful in many situations,
from measuring the speed of a rotor to navigating a robot.
- There are many different types of proximity sensors, such
as magnetic, eddy current and Hall-effect, optical,
ultrasonic, inductive, and capacitive.
Range Finders: range finders are used to find larger
distances, to detect obstacles, and to map the surfaces of
objects.
- Range finders are generally based on light—visible light,
infrared light, or laser, ultrasonics and GPS.
Sniff Sensors: Sniff sensors are similar to smoke detectors.
They are sensitive to particular gases and send a signal
when they detect the gas. They are used for safety
purposes as well as for search and detection purposes.
Taste Sensors: A taste sensor is a device that determines
the composition of particles in a medium. One
device uses an array of potentiometric sensors to evaluate
the five basic tastes of sweetness, bitterness, sourness and
saltiness
Position and Displacement sensors
-Position sensors are used to measure displacements, both
angular and linear, as well as movements.
-The position information may also be used to calculate
velocities.
Potentiometers:
-A potentiometer converts position information into a
variable voltage through a resistor.
- As the sliding contact (wiper) slides on the resistor due to
a change in position, the proportion of the resistance
before or after the point of contact with the wiper
compared to the total resistance varies.
-The resistive external load RL is in parallel with R2, and
both are in series with R1.
- Since in this capacity, the potentiometer acts as a voltage
divider, the output will be proportional to the resistance as:

- Potentiometers can be rotary or linear, and therefore, can

measure linear or angular motions.
Encoders:
-An encoder is a simple device that can output a digital
signal for each small portion of a movement.
- To do this, the encoder disk or strip is divided into small
sections

-Each section is either opaque or transparent (it can also be

either reflective or nonreflective).
-A light source, such as an LED on one side, provides a beam
of light to the other side of the encoder disk or strip, where it
is seen by a light-sensitive sensor, such as a phototransistor.
-If the disk’s angular position (or in the case of a strip, the
linear position) is such that the light is revealed, the sensor on
the opposite side will be turned on and will have a high signal.
If the angular position of the disk is such that the light is
occluded, the sensor will be off and its output will be low
(therefore, a digital output).
-As the disk rotates, it can continuously send signals. If the
signals are counted, the approximate total displacement of
the disk can be measured at any time.
- There are two basic types of encoders: incremental and
absolute.
-In incremental type of encoder, the areas (arcs) of opaque
and transparent sections are all equal and repeating.
-Since all arcs are the same size, each represents an equal
angle of rotation.
-If the disk is divided into only two portions, each portion
is 180 degrees, its resolution will also be 180 degrees, and
within this arc, the system is incapable of reporting any
more accurate information about the displacement or
position.
- If the number of divisions increases, the accuracy
increases as well. Therefore, the resolution of an optical
encoder is related to the number of arcs of
transparent/opaque areas.
-In absolute encoder, each portion of the encoder disk’s
angular displacement has a unique combination of
clear/opaque sections that give it a unique signature.
-Through this unique signature, it is possible to determine
the exact position of the disk at any time, without the need
for a starting position.
Linear Variable Differential Transformer (LVDT):
-A linear variable differential transformer (or transducer) is
actually a transformer whose core moves with the distance
measured and that outputs a variable analog voltage as a
result of this displacement.
-In general, a transformer is an electric-to-electric energy
converter that changes the voltage/current ratio.
- Except for losses, the total input energy to the device is
the same as the total output energy.
- As a transformer increases or decreases a voltage in
proportion to the number of turns in its coils, the
corresponding current changes inversely with it.
-This occurs because there are two coils with different
numbers of turns.
-The electrical energy into one coil creates a flux, which
induces a voltage in the second coil proportional to the
ratio of the number of turns in the windings.
- As the number of turns in the secondary coil increases,
the voltage increases proportionally, and consequently, the
current decreases proportionally.
- However, the induction of voltage in the secondary is
verymuch a function of the strength of the flux.
-If no iron core is present, the flux lines can disperse,
reducing the strength of the magnetic field. As a result, the
induction of voltage in the secondary will be minimal.
- In the presence of an iron core, the flux lines are gathered
inward, increasing the density of the field, and
consequently, the induced voltage.
- This is used to create the variable output voltage in the
LVDT, as in Figure. The output of an LVDT is very linear and
proportional to the input position of the core.
Resolvers:
-Resolvers are very similar to LVDTs in principle, but are used
to measure an angular motion.
-A resolver is also a transformer, where the primary coil is
connected to the rotating shaft and carries an alternating
current, either through slip rings or from a brushless
transformer within it
-There are two secondary coils, placed 90 apart from each
other. As the rotor rotates, the flux it develops rotates with
it. When the primary coil in the rotor is parallel to either of
the two secondary coils, the voltage induced in that coil is
maximum, while the other secondary coil perpendicular to
it does not develop any voltage.
-As the rotor rotates, eventually the voltage in the first
secondary coil goes to zero, while the second coil develops
its maximum voltage.
-For all other angles in between, the two secondary coils
develop a voltage proportional to the sine and cosine of
the angle between the primary and the two secondary
coils.
- Resolvers are reliable, robust, and accurate.
(Linear) Magnetostrictive Displacement Transducers (LMDT
or MDT):
-In this sensor, a pulse is sent through a conductor, which
bounces back as it reaches a magnet.
-The time of travel to the magnet and back is converted to
a distance if the speed of travel is known.
- By attaching the moving part to either the magnet or the
conductor, the displacement can be measured.
Hall-effect Sensors:
-A Hall-effect sensor works on the Hall-effect principle,
where the output voltage of a conductor that carries a
current changes when in the presence of a magnetic field.
-Therefore, the output voltage of the sensor changes when
a permanent magnet or a coil that produces a magnetic
flux is close to the sensor.
-A Hall-effect transducer’s output is analog and must be
converted for digital applications.
- It is used in many applications, including the sensing of
the position of the permanent magnet rotors of brushless
DC motors.
Strain gauge based force-torque sensors
Strain Gauge :
-A strain gauge can also be used to measure force.
-The output of the strain gauge is a variable resistance,
proportional to the strain, which itself is a function of
applied forces.
-Strain gauges are used to determine the forces at the end
effector and the wrist of a robot.
- Strain gauges can also be used for measuring the loads on
the joints and links of the robot, but this is not very
common.
-Strain gauges are used within a Wheatstone bridge.
-A balanced Wheatstone bridge would have similar
potentials at points A and B.
- If the resistance in any of the four resistors changes, there
will be a current flow between these two junctions.
-Consequently, it is necessary to first calibrate the bridge
for zero flow in the galvanometer.
-Assuming that R1 is the strain gauge, when under stress,
its value will change, causing an imbalance in the
Wheatstone bridge and a current flow between A and B.
- By carefully adjusting the resistance of one of the other
resistors until the current flow becomes zero, the change in
the resistance of the strain gauge can be determined from:
-Strain gauges are sensitive to changes in temperature.
- To remedy this problem, a dummy strain gauge can be used
as one of the four resistors in the bridge to compensate for
temperature changes.
Torque Sensors:
-Torque can be measured by a pair of strategically placed
force sensors.
-Suppose that two force sensors are placed on a shaft,
opposite of each other, on opposite sides.
-If a torque is applied to the shaft, it generates two opposing
forces on the shaft’s body, causing strains in opposite
directions.
- The two force sensors can measure the forces, which can
be converted to a torque.
-To measure torques about different axes, three pairs of
mutually perpendicular sensors must be used.
- However, since forces can also be measured with the
same sensors, a total of six force sensors can generally
report forces and torques about three axes, independent
of each other, as depicted in Figure
-Pure forces generate similar signals in a pair, while torques
generate pairs of signals with opposite signs.
-A miniature load sensor, designed to be used as fingertips
for anthropomorphic robot hands, uses a spring
instrumented with at least six strain gauges.
-The wires are attached to a small interface board at the
base of the spring.
-The sensor is attached to an A/D converter as close to the
sensor as possible.
- The data is transmitted to the controller by wires, routed
at the neutral axis of the fingers.
-Figure shows a schematic depiction of a system in which
flexural springs, attached to a shaft, form a pair of
capacitors used as part of a tunnel-diode oscillator circuit.
- As the shaft rotates slightly under the load, the
capacitance of each pair changes, causing a change
in the oscillation frequency of the circuit.
- By measuring the frequency of oscillations, the torque can
be determined.
Tachometers
-A tachometer is in fact a generator that converts
mechanical energy into electrical energy.
- Its output is an analog voltage proportional to the input
angular speed.
-It may be used along with potentiometers to estimate
velocity.
-Tachometers are generally inaccurate at very low speeds.
- A tachometer (revolution-counter, tach, rev-counter, RPM
gauge) is an instrument measuring the rotation speed of a
shaft or disk, as in a motor or other machine.
- The device usually displays the revolutions per minute
(RPM) on a calibrated analogue dial, but digital displays are
increasingly common.
Types Of Tachometers:
-Analog Tachometers
-Digital Tachometers
- Contact and Non-Contact Tachometers
-Time and frequency measuring tachometers
Working principle
-Pulses are fed to the tachometer at the frequency to be
measured. A scale factor is applied to produce readings of
desired types (linear speed, flow rates, etc)
- Two basic principles:- 1. Principle of fixed time based
tachometer 2. Principle of reciprocal tachometer
Applications
- Automobiles , Laser Instruments , Analog Audio
Recording , Medical Applications.