Bharatiya Vidya Bhavan’s

SARDAR PATEL COLLEGE OF ENGINEERING

(Government Aided Autonomous Institute)
Munshi Nagar, Andheri (W) Mumbai – 400058

Sensors and actuators

Mr. Rahul Chavhan

Assistant Professor
Department of Electrical Engineering
E-mail: rahul.chavhan@spce.ac.in
Sensor
A Sensor is a device that detects Examples of Sensors
and measures a physical quantity Temperature Sensors –
(such as temperature, pressure, Measure temperature changes.
motion, or light) and converts it Example: Thermocouples, RTDs (Resistance
into an electrical signal that can be Temperature Detectors), Thermistors.
processed, displayed, or recorded.
Pressure Sensors –
Detect variations in pressure.
Example: Piezoelectric Pressure Sensors, Strain Gauge
Pressure Sensors, Bourdon Tube
 Transducer
A Transducer is a device that Examples
converts one form of energy into Electrical Transducers –
another. Convert physical quantities into electrical signals.
In measurement and Example: Thermocouple (temperature to voltage),
instrumentation, a transducer Strain Gauge (force to resistance change)
typically converts a physical
quantity (such as temperature, Mechanical Transducers –
pressure, or force) into an electrical Convert physical energy into mechanical displacement.
signal that can be processed, Example: Bourdon Tube (pressure to displacement),
displayed, or recorded. Spring Scale (force to displacement).

Sensor and transducer are used interchangeably to denote a sensor transducer unit.
They are the functional stages of sensing.
First, a measurand is felt or sensed before it is transduced or converted from one type of energy to another
for various purposes including the measurement of physical parameters like position, velocity, etc.
Sensors in Robotics
Sensors in robots function like human Importance of Sensors in Robotics
senses (nose, ears, mouth, skin, eyes). Robots must recognize object’s characteristics
(weight, fragility, temperature).
Robots gather environmental data to
operate effectively. Sensors provide real-time feedback to the robot
controller.
Sensors enable object detection,
movement control, and obstacle Used in industrial applications for safe and
avoidance. efficient operations.
Functions of Sensors in Industrial Robots
1. Safe Operation – Protect human workers from robotic hazards.
Example: Floor sensors that deactivate robots if a person steps in.

2. Interlocking – Ensures correct sequencing of operations.

Example: A conveyor system waits until a machining process is complete.

3. Inspection – Quality control through measurement.

Example: Vision systems measure component length within tolerances.

4. Part Configuration – Identifies position and orientation of parts.

Example: Sensors guide welding robots in assembling car bodies.
Major capabilities required by a Robots
Simple Touch: Detects presence/absence of an object.

Taction (Complex Touch): The presence of an object plus some information on its size and shape.

Simple Force: Measures force along a single axis.

Complex Force: Measures force along multiple axes.

Proximity: Noncontact detection of an object.

Simple Vision: Detection of edges, holes, and corners.

Complex Vision: Recognizes shapes.

Classification of Sensors
Based on the type of signals a sensor or Classification based on the sense i.e. internal
transducer receives and processes, it can or external state of the robots.
be classified as analog or digital.
Internal Sensors:
Analog Sensors: Measure the internal state of robot, i.e.
Continuous output variation. position, velocity, acceleration, etc., at a
Examples: Potentiometers, strain-gauge particular instant.
sensors.
External Sensors:
Digital Sensors: Used to learn more about robot’s
Discrete or digital output. environmental conditions, especially the
Examples: Encoders at robot joints. object being manipulated.
Internal Sensors
Position Sensors Types:
Measure the position of each joint or joint 1. Encoder
angle. 2. Potentiometer
3. LVDT
Helps to determine the end-effector 4. Synchros and Resolver
configuration (position and orientation).

Utilized in forward kinematics

calculations.
Internal Sensors
Position Sensors Types of encoders:
1. Encoder Incremental Encoders:
Encoders are digital optical devices that Measure relative position changes.
convert motion into a sequence of digital Absolute Encoders:
pulses. Provide unique position values.
Linear Encoders:
By counting a single bit or decoding a set Measure linear displacement.
of bits, pulses can be converted into Rotary Encoders:
relative or absolute measurements. Measure angular displacement.
Internal Sensors
Position Sensors The resistance of the cells (photodiodes)
1. Encoder decreases whenever a beam of light falls on
a. Incremental Linear Encoder: them.
Thus, a pulse is generated each time a beam
Uses a transparent glass scale with an
of light is intersected by the opaque line.
opaque grating.

A light source and photodiodes generate

pulses as light is blocked or passed.

The controller updates the counter to track

the distance traveled.

Fig. Incremental linear type

Internal Sensors
Position Sensors In the scale shown, if the opaque block
1. Encoder represents 1 (one) and the transparent
b. Absolute Linear Encoder: block as 0 (zero) then the leftmost column
Similar to the incremental encoder but will show a binary number as 00000, i.e., a
decimal value of 0, and the rightmost
provides an absolute value of distance
column will show a binary number 11111,
covered. i.e., a decimal value of 31.

Uses a pattern of opaque and transparent

strips to represent binary numbers.

Digital output ensures minimal errors at

high speeds.

Fig. Absolute linear type

Internal Sensors
Position Sensors
1. Encoder The common value of the width of
c. Incremental Rotary Encoder: transparent spaces is 20 microns.
Uses circular gratings on a disc.

Contains two sets of grating lines for

detecting rotation direction.

Additionally there is another circle, which

contains only one grating mark, used for
measurement of full-circles.

Fig. Incremental rotary type

Internal Sensors
A Gray code, unlike binary codes, allows
Position Sensors only one of the binary bits in a code
1. Encoder sequence to change between radial lines.
d. Absolute Rotary Encoder: It prevents confusing changes in the binary
The circular disk is divided into a number output of the absolute encoder when the
encoder oscillates between points.
of circular strips and each strip has
definite arc segments.

Provides absolute digital output.

Mounted on motor shafts with some

gearing for accuracy of measurement.

To avoid noise in this encoder, a gray

scale is sometimes used.
Fig. Absolute rotary type
Internal Sensors
Position Sensors Angular Position of an Encoder
1. Encoder
𝑛
𝜃= 𝜃
𝑝 𝑚
Where;
𝜃 - Angular position
p – maximum count possible (pulses)
±𝜃𝑚 - range of rotary encoder
n - Current pulse count

Fig. Rotary encoder – basic arrangement

Internal Sensors
Position Sensors Types:
2. Potentiometer Linear Potentiometer:
A potentiometer (pot) is a variable Measures linear displacement.
resistance device used for displacement
measurement.

Converts linear or angular displacements

into voltage.
Rotary Potentiometer:
Consists of a wiper that moves over a Measures angular displacement.
resistive element, changing resistance
proportionally.
Internal Sensors
Position Sensors
2. Potentiometer…

𝑣𝑅 : Reference voltage (applied across the 𝑥: Displacement of the wiper along the
resistor). linear potentiometer.
𝑣0 : Measured voltage (output signal 𝑅0 : Total resistance of the potentiometer.
dependent on displacement). 𝑎 : Radius of the rotary potentiometer.
𝐿: Total length of the linear potentiometer. 𝜃: Angular displacement.
Internal Sensors
Linear Pot: Rotary Pot:
A linear potentiometer is used to measure To measure the displacement of a robotic
the displacement of a sliding object. arm using a rotary potentiometer and
A linear potentiometer is mounted along a convert it into a voltage output.
robotic gripper. A rotary potentiometer is connected to the
A reference voltage (𝑣𝑅 ) is applied across joint of a robotic arm.
the potentiometer. A reference voltage (𝑣𝑅 ) is applied across
As the gripper moves, the position of the the potentiometer.
wiper changes, varying the resistance and The wiper moves as the arm rotates,
output voltage (𝑣0 ). varying the resistance and output voltage
For a linear potentiometer, the output (𝑣0 ).
voltage is given by: 𝜃
𝜃 𝑅𝑥 = 𝑅0 ∗
𝑥 𝑥 𝑣0 = 𝑣𝑅 ∗
𝑣0 = 𝑣𝑅 ∗ 𝑅𝑥 = 𝑅0 ∗ 𝜃𝑚𝑎𝑥 𝜃𝑚𝑎𝑥
𝐿 𝐿
Internal Sensors
Position Sensors Working Principle:
3. LVDT When the core is at the center, the output
Linear Variable Differential Transformer voltage is zero.
LVDT is a highly accurate displacement As the core moves, the voltage difference
transducer. between the secondary coils changes
Generates an AC signal proportional to linearly.
core displacement.
Works on the principle of electromagnetic
induction.

Rotary Variable Differential Transformer (RVDT)

Similar principle to LVDT but measures angular displacement.
Used for rotational position sensing.
Provides accurate and reliable angular movement detection.
Internal Sensors
Position Sensors
3. LVDT…
Primary Coil:
Generates the magnetic field.
Secondary Coils:
Detect induced voltage changes.
Ferrous Core:
Moves within the magnetic field, affecting
voltage output
Sensitivity
𝑀𝑎𝑥𝑖𝑚𝑢𝑚 𝑂𝑢𝑡𝑝𝑢𝑡 𝑉𝑜𝑙𝑡𝑎𝑔𝑒
𝑆= 𝑉/𝑚𝑚
𝑀𝑎𝑥𝑖𝑚𝑢𝑚 𝐷𝑖𝑠𝑝𝑙𝑎𝑐𝑒𝑚𝑒𝑛𝑡
Output Voltage
𝑉0 = 𝑆 𝑥 𝐷𝑖𝑠𝑝𝑙𝑎𝑐𝑒𝑚𝑒𝑛𝑡 Fig. Principal of LVDT
Internal Sensors
Position Sensors
4. Synchros and Resolver
Synchros and resolvers are Both synchros and resolvers consist of:
electromechanical devices used for
measuring angular positions. ➢ A rotating shaft (rotor)
➢ A stationary housing (stator)
Unlike encoders that provide digital
output, synchros and resolvers generate The rotor moves within the stator,
analog signals. inducing voltages in the stator windings.

These signals require conversion into

digital form using an Analog-to-Digital
Converter (ADC).
Synchros: Resolver:
Stator has three Stator has only two
windings oriented windings oriented at
120° apart. 90°.

Windings are Provides two-phase

electrically connected analog output signals
in a Y-configuration. (sine and cosine
signals).
Provides three-phase
analog output signals. Less complex and
more cost-effective
compared to synchros.

Fig. Synchros and resolvers

Internal Sensors
Position Sensors
4. Synchros and Resolver…

Difference Between Synchros and Resolvers

Feature Synchros Resolvers
Stator Windings 3 (120° apart) 2 (90° apart)
Two-phase (sine &
Signal Type Three-phase
cosine)
Manufacturing
High Low
Complexity
Cost More expensive Less expensive
Industrial automation,
Applications Aerospace, defense
robotics
Internal Sensors
Position Sensors
4. Synchros and Resolver…

Brushless Resolvers Electrical Operation

Modern resolvers use brushless designs Synchros and resolvers operate like
for improved durability. rotating transformers.

Utilizes a transformer to couple rotor The rotor is excited by an AC reference

signals from stator to rotor. voltage.

No brushes or slip rings, leading to longer Induced stator voltage is proportional to

lifespan. the sine of the shaft angle (θ).
Internal Sensors
Position Sensors
4. Synchros and Resolver…

Mathematical Representation Resolver voltage equations:

𝑉0 𝑆1 − 𝑆3 = V sin(wt) sin θ
Synchro voltage equations: 𝑉0 𝑆3 − 𝑆2 = V sin(wt) sin (θ+90̊ )
𝑉0 𝑆1 − 𝑆3 = V sin(wt) sin θ = V sin(wt) cos (θ)
𝑉0 𝑆3 − 𝑆2 = V sin(wt) sin (θ+120̊ )
𝑉0 𝑆2 − 𝑆1 = V sin(wt) sin (θ+240̊ )
Internal Sensors
Position Sensors
4. Synchros and Resolver… Digital Conversion
Output of synchros and resolvers must be
Angular Accuracy digitized for computer processing.
Accuracy is measured in arc-minutes and
arc-seconds. Analog-to-Digital Converters (ADCs) are
used.
1 degree = 60 arc-minutes1 arc-minute =
60 arc-seconds 8-bit ADC: Converts the signal into 2^8 =
256 discrete values.
Typical accuracy ranges from 5 arc-min to
0.5 arc-min. 16-bit ADC: Converts the signal into 2^16
= 65,536 discrete values.
Internal Sensors
Velocity Sensors Types:
Velocity or speed sensors measure 1. All Position Sensors
velocity by taking consecutive position 2. Tachometer
measurements at known time intervals and 3. Hall-effect Sensor
computing the rate of change of position
values.
Some sensors can measure velocity
directly based on different principles.
Internal Sensors
Velocity Sensors
1. Position Sensor
All position sensors can be used to
determine velocity when measured within
certain time bounds.

Example: An incremental position

encoder generates pulses. The velocity is
calculated by dividing the number of
pulses by the time taken.

However, this method increases

computational load on the controller.
Internal Sensors
Velocity Sensors Working Principle:
2. Tachometer A coil is attached to the rotating element
Measures velocity directly without much and moves in a magnetic field (stator).
computational load. As the shaft speed increases, voltage at
Used to determine the speed of rotation of coil terminals increases proportionally.
an element. Alternative setup: A magnet on the
Based on Fleming’s rule: Voltage rotating shaft and a coil on the stator
produced is proportional to the rate of flux generate a voltage proportional to shaft
linkage. speed.
This voltage is digitized using an Analog-
to-Digital Converter (ADC) and sent to a
computer.

Fig. Schematic diagram of a tachometer

Internal Sensors
Velocity Sensors
3. Hall-Effect Sensor
Another velocity measurement device. Higher magnetic field strength results in
higher voltage output.
Principle: When a flat conductor (Hall When a ring magnet is used, the voltage
chip) is exposed to a Potential difference produced is proportional to the speed of
on its two opposite faces, then the voltage rotation.
across the perpendicular faces is zero.

When a magnetic field is imposed at right

angles to the conductor, the voltage is
generated on the two other perpendicular
faces.

Fig. Principle of Hall-effect sensor

Internal Sensors
Acceleration Sensors Acceleration from Position or Velocity
Acceleration can be determined by Sensors
differentiating velocity measurements or Acceleration can be found as the rate of
directly measuring force and applying change of velocity.
Newton’s second law of motion.
𝐹 = 𝑚𝑎 However, this method requires
differentiation, which amplifies noise and
Whrere, F = Force increases computational load.
m= mass
a = acceleration Instead, integrating acceleration to obtain
velocity and position is preferred, as
Force sensors, such as strain gauges, are integration suppresses noise.
commonly used.
Internal Sensors
Acceleration Sensors… Acceleration Calculation:
Force Measurement: Acceleration can be derived from force:
Force measured using a strain gauge: 𝐹 ∆𝑅𝐴𝐸
𝑎= =
∆𝑅𝐴𝐸 𝑚 𝑅𝐺𝑚
𝐹=
𝑅𝐺
Where; What is Gauge Factor?
∆𝑅 = Change in resistance of the strain It is a measure of sensitivity for the strain
gauge gauges, and defined by
𝐴 = Cross-sectional area 𝟏 ∆𝑹
𝑮=
E = Elastic modulus of the material 𝜺 𝑹
R = Original resistance Where; G is the gauge factor, and 𝜺 is
G = Gauge factor strain.
Internal Sensors
Force Sensors Common Types:
Force sensors measure force by detecting 1. Strain-gauge Based
displacement, resistance change, or
electrical charge. 2. Piezoelectric Based

Common types: Strain-gauge based, 3. Current Based

Piezoelectric, and Current-based sensors.
Internal Sensors
Force Sensors Wheatstone Bridge in Strain Gauges:
1. Strain-Gauge Based Force Sensors Strain gauges are often connected in a
Principle: The elongation of a conductor Wheatstone bridge circuit for precise
increases its resistance. measurements.

Resistance changes due to: Advantages:

Increase in length.  Enhanced sensitivity.
Decrease in cross-sectional area.  Compensation for temperature
variations.
Typical resistance range: 50–100 Ω.
Internal Sensors

Fig. Strain gauges

Fig. Cantelever beam with strain-gauges
Strain gauges are made They are glued on the surfaces where
of electrical conductors, strains are to be measured, e.g., 𝑅1 and 𝑅2
usually wire or foil,
etched on a base
The strains cause changes in the resistances of
material.
the strain gauges, which are measured by
attaching them to the Wheatstone bridge circuit
as one of the four resistances, R1 . . . R4
Fig. Wheatstone Bridge Circuit
Internal Sensors
Force Sensors Principle: The piezoelectric effect
2. Piezoelectric Force Sensors produces an electrical potential when
A piezoelectric material exhibits a deformed.
phenomenon known as the piezoelectric
effect. Materials: Quartz, Tourmaline, Rochelle
This effect states that when asymmetrical, salt.
elastic crystals are deformed by a force, an
electrical potential will be developed Characteristics:
within the distorted crystal lattice. Measures forces from 1 to 20 kN.
This effect is reversible. That is, if a Suitable for dynamic force measurement.
potential is applied between the surfaces
of the crystal, it will change its physical
dimensions.
Internal Sensors

The magnitude and polarity of the induced

charges are proportional to the magnitude
and direction of the applied force.

These sensors can be used to measure an

instantaneous change in force (dynamic
forces).

Fig. Piezoelectric Sensor

Internal Sensors
Force Sensor
Current-based force sensors are
3. Current-Based Force Sensors
devices that measure force by
Torque in electric motors is a function of converting mechanical deformation
current. into an electrical signal, specifically a
current output.
Measuring current helps estimate applied
force and torque. These sensors typically use
piezoresistive or piezoelectric
materials, which generate a current
Used in robotic actuators and industrial
proportional to the applied force.
motors.
Internal Sensors
Example – Force and Acceleration using Strain Gauges
If the gauge factor G = 2, resistance of the unreformed wire R = 100 Ω, and strain
ɛ = 10−6 , then change in resistance is given by
∆𝑅 = 𝐺𝜀𝑅 = 2 𝑥 10−6 𝑥 100 = 0.0002 Ω

If the strain gauge is used to measure applied force, F on a member of cross-sectional area, 𝐴 =
10 𝑚𝑚2 , and Young’s modulus, 𝐸 = 6.9𝑥10−10 𝑁 𝑚2 (for aluminum), then
𝐴𝐸∆𝑅
𝐹= N
𝐺𝑅
If the mass of the member m = 3 kg then using equations

𝐹𝑚
𝑎=
𝑚 𝑠2
Externan Sensors
External sensors are primarily used to learn more about a robot’s environment,
especially the objects being manipulated.

External sensors can be divided into the following categories:

1. Contact type

2. Noncontact type
Externan Sensors
Contact Type Example;
Contact-type force sensors require 1. Limit Switches
physical contact to detect force or 2. Pneumatic Switches
position. 3. Piezoelectric Sensors
4. Pressure Transducer
They operate based on mechanical
deformation or pressure.

Commonly used in industrial automation

and robotics.
Externan Sensors
Contact Type Types of Limit Switches
1. Limit Switch Normally Open (NO):
A limit switch is a type of contact sensor Switch is open in the default state; it
that detects the presence or position of an closes when pressure is applied.
object.
Normally Closed (NC):
Functions similarly to a home light Switch is closed in the default state; it
switch, with ON-OFF characteristics. opens when pressure is applied.

Activated when force is applied to a Single-Pole Switch: Controls one circuit

mechanical arm or actuator. (on/off).

The limit switch usually has a pressure- Multi-Pole Switch: Can control multiple
sensitive mechanical arm. circuits.
Externan Sensors

Mechanical Arm Activation:

When an object presses
against the arm, it moves,
Electrical Signal Processing:
closing or opening the switch.
A pull-up resistor holds the
signal at +V until the switch
closes, sending it to the
ground.
Magnetic Activation:
A magnet attached to an
object triggers the switch.

Fig. Limit Switch

Externan Sensors
Contact Type
1. Limit Switch…

Limitations of Limit Switches

Advantages of Limit Switches
 Prone to mechanical failure
 Simple and reliable operation
 Low mean time between failures
 Cost-effective
(MTBF)
 Works in harsh environments
 Slow switching speed compared to
 Provides direct mechanical feedback
photoelectric sensors

Applications of Limit Switches

Industrial Automation: Detecting object presence on conveyor belts.
Robotics: Detecting extreme motion positions in robotic arms.
Safety Mechanisms: Emergency stop buttons in machinery.
Door Control: Automatic doors in elevators and transport systems.
Externan Sensors
Non-contact Type
Noncontact sensors detect force or position without direct physical contact.

They are widely used in automation and robotics due to their durability and fast
response times.

Types include proximity sensors and semiconductor displacement sensors.

Externan Sensors
Non-contact Type
Inductive Proximity Sensors
1. Proximity Sensors
Work based on electromagnetic induction.
Proximity sensing is the technique of
detecting the presence or absence of an
Consist of four main components:
object with an electronic noncontact-type
 Sensor coil and ferrite core
sensor.
 Oscillator circuit

 Detector circuit
Two main types: Inductive (for metallic
 Solid-state output circuit
objects) and Capacitive (for metallic and
nonmetallic objects).

Advantage: No mechanical wear and tear,

providing higher reliability and longer
lifespan.
1. Oscillator Activation: 6. Switching Condition:
The oscillator circuit generates a Once the amplitude reaches a threshold,
radio-frequency electromagnetic field the detector circuit switches ON.
around the ferrite core.
7. Output Activation:
The detector circuit triggers the solid-
2. Field Formation: The electromagnetic
state output circuit, indicating the
field is directed at the sensor face.
presence of a metal object.
3. Metal Object Detection: 8. Object Leaves the Field:
When a metal target enters the field, When the metal object moves away, the
eddy currents are induced on its surface. oscillator amplitude increases again.

4. Oscillator Damping: 9. Detector Reset:

The eddy currents create a loading If the amplitude rises above a specific
effect, reducing the amplitude of the value, the detector circuit switches OFF.
oscillator signal.
10. Output Deactivation:
5. Detector Circuit Response:
The solid-state output returns to OFF
The detector circuit senses the reduced
state, indicating no object in range.
oscillator amplitude.

Fig. Inductive Proximity Sensor

Externan Sensors
Non-contact Type
Capacitive Proximity Sensor
Capacitive proximity sensors operate similarly to inductive sensors.

Capacitive sensing is based on dielectric capacitance.

They detect objects based on changes in capacitance rather than inductance.

Capacitance is the property of insulators to store the charge.
A capacitor consists of two plates separated by an insulator, usually called a
dielectric.
When the switch is closed, a charge is stored on the two plates.
The distance between the plates determines the ability of the capacitor to store
the charge and can be calibrated as a function of stored charge to determine
discrete ON and OFF switching status.
Externan Sensors
Capacitive plates:
One internal (part of the
sensor), the other external
(target object).
When an object enters the sensing
range, the capacitance changes,
Oscillator circuit: triggering the sensor.
Generates an oscillating
signal. One plate is inside the sensor.
The sensor face acts as the
dielectric.
Fig. Principle of capacitive sensors The target acts as the second
plate.
Detector circuit: Detects capacitance changes. The oscillation starts when
capacitance increases beyond a
Solid-state output circuit: Converts the signal into a switching threshold.
action.
Externan Sensors
Non-contact Type
Capacitive Proximity Sensor…
Key Characteristics Limitations
 Can detect non-metallic targets. Affected by moisture and humidity as
 Detects small and lightweight objects these change the dielectric properties.
better than mechanical switches.
 High switching rate for rapid object
Requires sensitivity adjustment for
different materials and applications.
counting.
 Can sense through nonmetallic barriers
Must have an extended range for
like glass and plastics. effective sensing.
 Long operational life with no physical
contact.
 Bounce-free contact signal due to solid-
state output.
Externan Sensors
Non-contact Type
Capacitive Proximity Sensor…
Sensing Range
Capacitive sensors have a longer sensing range than inductive sensors.
The sensing distance depends on:
 Plate area (larger plates = greater range)

 Target material and dielectric constant

 Environmental conditions

Most sensors include a sensitivity adjustment potentiometer for fine-tuning

Externan Sensors
Non-contact Type
Semiconductor Displacement Sensor
Uses a Light Emitting Diode (LED) or laser as a light source.

Employs a Position-Sensitive Detector (PSD) to track displacement.

Measures the movement of a beam spot on the PSD to determine displacement.

Externan Sensors
Working Principle
 A laser beam is emitted and focused on the
target using a lens.
 The target reflects the beam, which is then
directed onto the PSD.
 As the target moves, the beam spot moves on
the PSD.
 The displacement is determined by detecting
the shift in the beam spot.

Fig. Semiconductor-based sensor

 Light source (LED/laser)

 Lens system
 Target object
 PSD to detect beam movement
Externan Sensors
Non-contact Type
Semiconductor Displacement Sensor
Key Characteristics
 High precision for detecting small displacements.

 Non-contact measurement, reducing wear and tear.

 Fast response time for real-time monitoring.

 Can measure displacement in micro and nanometer ranges.

 Used in robotics, automation, and quality control applications.

Applications
Robotics: Position feedback for robotic arms.
Semiconductor industry: Precise alignment of wafers.
Manufacturing: Measuring vibrations and surface variations.
Medical devices: Measuring micro-movements in surgical instruments.
 References:
1. S. K. Saha, “Introduction to Robotics” 2e, TATA McGraw Hills Education (2014).

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