OCEAN ENERGY

LECTURE SESSION-18

Prof. Sanjib Roy, Mechanical Engineering Dept., MPSTME, NMIMS, Shirpur Campus
Oceans cover about 71% of the earth’s surface. Oceans
receive, store and dissipate energy through various
physical processes.
As per present technology status, recoverable energy in
oceans exits mainly in the form of waves, tides and
temperature difference (between surface and deep
layers).

Tides and waves produce mechanical energy whereas

temperature difference produces thermal energy.
TIDAL ENERGY
TIDAL ENERGY EXPLOITS THE NATURAL RISE AND FALL OF COASTAL
TIDAL WATERS CAUSED PRINCIPALLY BY INTERACTION OF THE
GRAVITATIONAL FIELDS OF THE SUN AND THE MOON. THE OCEAN
LEVEL DIFFERENCE CAUSED DUE TO TIDES CONTAINS LARGE
AMOUNT OF POTENTIAL ENERGY.
THE HIGHEST LEVEL OF TIDAL WATER IS KNOWN AS FLOOD TIDE
OR HIGH TIDE.
THE LOWEST LEVEL IS KNOWN AS LOW TIDE OR EBB.
THE LEVEL DIFFERENCE BETWEEN THE HIGH TIDE AND LOW TIDE IS
KNOWN AS TIDAL RANGE.
ORIGIN AND NATURE OF THE TIDAL ENERGY
TIDES ARE PRODUCED BY THE GRAVITATIONAL ATTRACTION OF
THE MOON AND THE SUN ACTING UPON THE ROTATING EARTH.

THE MOON EXERTS A LARGER GRAVITATIONAL FORCE (ABOUT

70% OF THE TIDE-PRODUCING FORCE) ON THE EARTH, AS IT IS A
GREAT DEAL CLOSER THAN THE SUN.

SURFACE WATER IS PULLED AWAY FROM THE EARTH ON THE SIDE

FACING THE MOON, AND AT THE SAME TIME THE SOLID EARTH IS
PULLED AWAY FROM THE WATER ON THE OPPOSITE SIDE.
THUS THE OCEAN HEIGHT INCREASES AT BOTH THE NEAR AND
FAR SIDES OF THE EARTH.

THE SOLID EARTH ROTATES WITH A PERIOD OF ONE DAY

UNDERNEATH THESE TWO BULGES.

THESE BULGES ARE SWEPT WESTWARD, DUE TO EARTH’S

ROTATION, AS DEEP OCEAN WAVES LASTING A PERIOD OF 12
HOURS AND 25 MINUTES.

THE SUN’S EFFECT IS SIMILAR BUT SMALLER IN MAGNITUDE

(ABOUT 2.2 TIMES LESS THAN LUNAR), AND WITH A PERIOD OF 12
HOURS.
THESE ARE THUS SEMI-DIURNAL CHANGES OF THE OCEAN LEVEL.
DUE TO SLIGHT DIFFERENCE OF PERIODS, THE SOLAR TIDE MOVES
IN AND OUT OF PHASE WITH THE LUNAR TIDE.
WHEN THE SUN, EARTH AND MOON ARE ALIGNED (APPROXIMATELY)
IN CONJUNCTION, THE LUNAR AND SOLAR TIDES ARE IN PHASE,
PRODUCING NET TIDES OF MAXIMUM RANGE.
THESE ARE THE SPRING TIDES OCCURING TWICE PER LUNAR MONTH
AT TIMES OF BOTH FULL AND NEW MOON.
(Diurnal cycle, any pattern that recurs daily. A semi-diurnal cycle refers to a
pattern that occurs about every twelve hours or about twice a day. Often these
can be related to lunar tides, in which case the interval is closer to 12 hours
and 25 minutes.)
WHEN SUN-EARTH AND MOON-EARTH DIRECTIONS ARE
PERPENDICULAR (IN QAUDRATURE), THE SOLAR AND LUNAR TIDES
ARE OUT OF PHASE PRODUCING NET TIDES OF MINIMUM RANGE.

THESE ARE THE NEAP TIDES THAT AGAIN OCCUR TWICE PER
MONTH AT TIMES OF HALF MOON (FIRST AND THIRD QAURTER
CYCLE OF THE MOON).
 Low tide

Earth
Mo
x Moon
on
Rotation
High tide
(Bulge)
(a) Bulge on near and far sides of the earth
High tide
Range
Mean Sea Level

6 h 12.5 min Low tide

One Tidal Cycle, 12 h 25 min

(b) Tidal wave
 M M
o Earth o Mo
SUN
o o on
n n
Full moon New moon

(a) Spring tides

M
o First quarter
o
n

Mo
Earth SUN
on

M
o
o
Third quarter
n
(b) Neap tides
 The main limitations of tidal energy are following :
1. Economic recovery of energy from tides is feasible only at those
sites where energy is concentrated in the form of tidal range of
about 5 m or more and the geography provides a favourable site
for economic construction of a tidal plant. Thus it is site specific.
2. Due to mismatch of lunar driven period of 12 hours 25 min and
human (solar) period of 24 hours, the optimum tidal power
generation is not in phase with demand.
3. Changing tidal range in two-week periods produces changing power.
4. The turbines are required to operate at variable head.
5. Requirement of large water volume flow at low head necessitates
parallel operation of many turbines.
6. Tidal plant disrupts marine life at the location and can cause potential
harm to ecology.
TIDAL ENERGY TECHNOLOGY
The main components of a tidal plant includes:

i. Dam, barrage or dyke – a barrier constructed to hold water,

ii. Sluice ways rapid controlled gates, used to fill a basin during
high tides or emptying it during low tides, and
iii. A special, bulb-type turbine-generator set steel shell containing
an alternator and special Kaplan turbine with variable pitch
blades.
TIDAL RANGE POWER
Basin Dam (barrage) Ocean
Consider water trapped at high tide Area, A
high tide
level
in a basin of area A, and allowed to
run out through a turbine at low tide Sluice
dh
as shown in figure. The potential
energy in the mass of water stored in Range, R
incremental head dh above the head h
h is :
dW = dm.g.h Turbine
Low tide
But, dm = ρ A dh level

Thus, dW = ρ A g h dh
Total potential energy of water stored in the basin is :
  W=
  W = ρ.A.g.R2 joules where ρ = density of water, g= gravitational constant
 
W = ρ.A.g.R2 joules
where ρ = density of water, Basin Dam (barrage) Ocean
g = gravitational constant Area, A
high tide
level

As the time between consecutive high Sluice

dh
and low tides is 6 hours 12.5 min (=
22350 s), this power is to be utilised Range, R
within this period. h
Assuming an average sea-water density
of 1025 kg/m3, the average theoretical Turbine
Low tide
power generated in one filling or level
emptying of the basin is :
Pav = 1025 x 9.80 x A x R 2
= 0.225 x A x R2 watts
2 x 22350
Thus, the tidal power developed is directly proportional to (i) area of basin, and
(ii) square of the range
 
The actual power generation by a practical system would be less than the
average theoretical power given in the above expression due to frictional
losses of the fluid, conversion efficiency of the turbine and generator and due
to the fact that the turbine cannot be operated down to zero head, and thus
full power generation potential cannot be utilised. The turbine has to be
stopped when the head reaches a minimum value r below which the
operation becomes uneconomical; the expressions are modified as :
W = joules
W = ρ.A.g.(R2 - r2)

Pav = 0.225 x A x (R2 - r2) watts

Pav
A = 0.225 (R 2
- r 2
) MW / km 2
Ocean Tidal Energy Conversion Schemes

The main tidal energy conversion schemes are

(i) Single basin : Single effect
(ii) Single basin : double effect
(iii)Two basin : linked basin
(iv)Two basin : Paired basin
(v) Tidal flow (or tidal current) schemes.
Single basin : Single effect
The single-basin scheme has only one basin. In the single-effect
scheme, power is generated either during filling or emptying the
basin.
Two types of operation cycles are possible.
In the ebb generation cycle operation, the sluice way is opened to
fill the basin during high tide. Once filled, the impounded water is
held till the receding cycle creates a suitable head. Water is now
allowed to flow through the turbine coupled to the generator till
the rising tide reduces the head to the minimum operating point.
The flow is held till the next generating cycle. The cycle is repeated
and power is generated intermittently.
 Ocean
Sluice ways

Basin
One tidal cycle Power Plant
Waiting Waiting Filling Barrage
Filling Generating

Basin Level
(a) Layout of single-basin tidal energy conversion scheme

Ocean Level

Sluice
Sluice Opened
closed Generation Generation
Starts Stops
(b) Single-basin single-effect tidal energy conversion scheme
Single basin : Single effect
In the flood generation cycle operation, the sequences are altered
to generate power during filling operation of the basin.

However, the sloping nature of the basin shores usually makes ebb
generation the more productive method.

Increased output can also be obtained by pumping during high

tide to increase the basin level and therefore the generation head.
The energy required for pumping must be borrowed and repaid.
The pumping is done against a small head at high tide, whereas the
same water is released through the turbine during low tide at a
great head, producing a net energy gain.
Single basin : Double effect scheme
In the single-basin, double –effect
scheme, power is generated on
One tidal cycle
both flood and ebb. Two-way
Generating Waiting Generating Waiting Generating (reversible) hydraulic turbines
are used. Pumping may also be
used to increase the output. The
Basin Level
routine is as follows :
1. Inward sluicing to fill the basin
2. Holding period
Filling Emptying
3. Ebb generation
Ocean Level
4. Outward sluicing to empty the
Sluice
opened Sluice Sluice basin
Sluice Opened closed
closed 5. Holding period
(b) Single-basin double-effect tidal energy conversion scheme 6. Flood generation
Two basin : Linked-Basin scheme
In order to maintain continuity
of power supply, linked and
High pool
Sluice ways paired basins schemes are
Power Plant
Ocean used. The linked-basin scheme
Barrage
Linked Basin
consists of two basins, one
Sluice ways
topped up at high tide, and the
Low pool
other emptied at low tide.
Thus, a permanent head is
created between the two
basins. Water flows through a
Linked-basin tidal-energy conversion scheme
turbine from the high basin to
the low basin.
Two basin: Paired-basin scheme
A paired basin consists essentially of two single basin schemes.
One scheme generates on flood and the other on the ebb cycle.

The output is almost but not quite, continuous. Two basin schemes
are generally found to be economically inferior to single-basin
schemes.
Tidal Current Schemes
In order to explore the possibility of dispensing with
the dam, its associated cost and environmental
impacts, extraction of energy from tidal currents have
been considered.
Strong tidal currents (as high as about 5 m/s) are found in
shallow seas, particularly where natural constrictions exist,
such as around headlands or between islands.
The practical devices for tidal flow power will be similar to
that used in river flow power systems.
Tidal Current Schemes
The theory of tidal flow power is similar to wind
power with the advantage of predictable velocities of
high-density fluid.
However, in this case the fluid velocities are much less
as compared to wind and the operation is carried out
in a marine environment.
The generation will be intermittent and total power
available may not be very large.
WAVE ENERGY
Waves are caused by the transfer of energy from surface
winds to the sea.

The rate of energy transfer depends upon the wind speed

and the distance over which it interacts with water.

The energy flux in waves is more than that available from

solar, wind and other renewable sources.
The power in the waves is directly proportional to the
square of its amplitude and to the period of motion.
WAVE ENERGY
The energy stored is dissipated through friction at shore and
turbulence at rates depending on characteristics of wave
and water depth.
Larger waves in deep sea lose energy quite slowly and can
effectively store it for many days and transmit it over great
distances.

For instance, large waves appearing off Europe might have

been initiated in stormy weather in the mid-Atlantic or as
far as the Caribbean Sea.
WAVE ENERGY
Wave energy in open oceans is likely to be inaccessible. The
resource potential near coastlines is estimated as in excess
of 20,00,000 MW.

Wave power is usually expressed in kilowatts per m,

representing the rate at which energy is transferred across a
line of 1-m length parallel to the wave front.
MAIN ADVANTAGES OF WAVE POWER
1. THE AVAILABILITY OF LARGE ENERGY FLUXES

2. PREDICTABILITY OF WAVE CONDITIONS OVER PERIOD

OF DAYS
DIFFICULTIES IN THE DEVELOPMENT OF WAVE POWER
i. Irregularity of wave patterns in amplitude, phase and
direction, which makes it difficult to extract power
efficiently.
ii. The power extraction system is exposed to occasional
extreme stormy conditions. During unusual extreme
conditions, once in several years, the wave amplitude
may reach as high as 10 times the normal value and the
associated power is about 100 times the normal value.
The devastating tsunami near the coast of Indonesia
towards the end of December 2004 is an example.
DIFFICULTIES IN THE DEVELOPMENT OF WAVE POWER
iii. The peak power of deep water waves is available in open
sea, where it is difficult to construct, operate and maintain a
system and transmit power to the shore.

iv. The slow and irregular motion of a wave is required to be

coupled to an electrical generator requiring high and
constant speed motion.
POWER IN WAVES
The characteristics of an ideal deep-water surface wave
(water depth more than about half the wavelength) are
shown in figure.
y Crest P4
a P4
x
P1 P3 P1 P3 P1
P2
Trough P2
λ
Surface particle motion Particle motion at various
Surface wave at time t with respect to time depths in water waves
POWER IN WAVES
The wave motion may be expressed mathematically by the
following general wave equation:
 
y = a sin ( t)
y Crest P4 where y = displacement above
P4 mean sea level, m
a a a = amplitude, m
x
λ = wavelength, m
P1 P3 P1 P3 P1 T = period, s
P2 t = time, s
Trough P2
λ
Surface particle motion
Surface wave at time t with respect to time
POWER IN WAVES
The equation can also be written as
 
y = a sin (ωt)
 
where k = = , angular frequency, rad/s

As the wave moves in linear direction (along x-axis), every

particle of water at the surface undergoes a circular
motion of radius ‘a’ (amplitude of the wave) and angular
speed, ω.
POWER IN WAVES

An object suspended in the water will exhibit this type of

motion. Viewing the vertical cross section of the water
column, the radius of circular motion of water particles
continues to decrease with depth and becomes zero at the
sea bed. Thus, while the wave propagates in the x-direction,
there is no net flow of water.
POWER IN WAVES
The wavelength of a travelling wave can be shown to be
 
λ=

The period of motion is :

 
T=

or, λ = 1.5613 T2
Linear velocity of the particle at the crest of the wave is aω.
POWER IN WAVES
The wave velocity (also known as phase velocity) in the
direction x is given by,
 
v=

From the above expression, it is clear that the wave

velocity does not depend on amplitude of the wave.
POWER IN WAVES
Now, consider the unit width of wave front perpendicular to the direction
of motion of wave as shown below:

Wave motion
Wave surface Wave front

dz
z Unit width of wavefront

h = a sin (kx)
x dx
λ
Vertical displacement of water particles at any instant (say t = 0) is
h = a sin (kx).
POWER IN WAVES
Element of water mass = ρ dx dz at distance x and height z, has moved
from –z to + z and thus has potential energy of (ρ dx dz) g 2z. The potential
energy in one wavelength per unit width of wave front, EP is given by
 𝑥= λ/ 𝒛2=𝒉

Wave surface EP = ∫ ∫ ( 𝝆 𝒅𝒙 𝒅𝒛 ) 𝒈 𝟐 𝒛
𝑥=0𝒛 =𝟎
𝑥=
  λ/2
dz
z or, EP =  ρ 𝒈∫ h 2 d x  
Unit width of 𝑥=0
wave front 𝑥=
  λ/2
h = a sin (kx)
𝟐                   dx  
or, EP =  ρ 𝒈 𝒂 ∫
λ
x dx
𝑥=0
¿¿
Vertical displacement of water particles at  
or, EP =
any instant (say t = 0) is h = a sin (kx).
POWER IN WAVES
 
EP =

Potential energy per unit length and per unit width of

wave front ( i.e. per unit surface area) is given by
 
EP =

In a harmonic motion, average kinetic and potential

energy contributions are equal. Thus, kinetic energy per
unit area is
 
EK =
Total energy per unit surface area is
E = E P + EK
 
=  
+
 
E = J/m2 or (MJ/km2)
The power carried forward per unit width of wave front:
 
P = Eu = W/m
 
where u = is called the group velocity of deep water
waves, i.e. the velocity at which the energy in the group of
waves is carried forward. Thus P can be written as
 
P = [
  
P = [

Thus the power in waves is directly proportional to the

square of the amplitude and to the period of the wave.
Therefore, the attraction for long periods and large
amplitudes to wave power engineers is apparent. The
annual average wave energy is usually expressed in
MWh/m.
 Wave Energy Technology
ENERGY IN THE WAVES IS HARNESSED BASICALLY IN THE FORM OF
MECHANICAL ENERGY USING WAVE ENERGY CONVERTERS, ALSO
KNOWN AS WAVE DEVICES OR WAVE MACHINES.
A WAVE DEVICE MAY BE PLACED IN THE OCEAN IN VARIOUS POSSIBLE
SITUATIONS AND LOCATIONS. THE FLUCTUATING MECHANICAL ENERGY
OBTAINED IS MODIFIED / SMOOTHED OUT TO DRIVE A GENERATOR. WAVE
ENERGY DEVICES MAY BE CLASSIFIED IN VARIOUS WAYS. DEPENDING UPON
THE LOCATION OF THESE DEVICES, THEY CAN BE CLASSIFIED AS :

1. OFF-SHORE OR DEEP WATER DEVICES (WATER DEPTH OF 40 M OR MORE)

2. SHORELINE DEVICES
THE AVAILABILITY OF WAVE POWER AT DEEP OCEAN SITES IS THREE TO EIGHT
TIMES THAT OF ADJACENT COASTAL SITES. HOWEVER, THE COST OF
CONSTRUCTION / INSTALATION, OPERATION AND POWER TRANSMISSION IS
QUITE LARGE.
SHORELINE DEVICES ON THE OTHER HAND HAVE THE ADVANTAGE OF
RELATIVELY EASIER MAINTENANCE AND INSTALLATION AND THEY DO NOT
REQUIRE DEEP-WATER MOORINGS AND LONG UNDERWATER CABLES.
DEPENDING UPON THE POSITION WITH RESPECT TO SEA LEVEL THEY ARE
CLASSIFIED AS
(I) FLOATING
(II) SUBMERGED AND
(III) PARTLY SUBMERGED DEVICES.

SUBMERGED DEVICES HAVE THE BENEFIT OF AVOIDING THE WORST STORM

CONDITIONS BUT HAVE INCREASED DIFFICULTIES OF MAINTENANCE.
DEPENDING ON THE ACTUATING MOTION USED IN CAPTURING THE
WAVE POWER, THESE DEVICES ARE CLASSIFIED AS

1. Heaving Float Type

2. Pitching Type
3. Heaving and Pitching–Float Type.
4. Oscillating Water-column Type
5. Surge Devices
1. Heaving Float Type
A float (buoy) placed on the surface of water heaves up and down
with waves due to the rise and fall of the water level. The resulting
vertical motion is used to operate the piston of an air pump through
linkage.
The pump may be anchored or moored to the sea bed. Several float-
operated air pumps are used to store energy in a compressed air storage.
The compressed air is used to generate electricity through an air turbine
coupled to a generator.
Power may also be generated from a buoy by means of an internally
suspended weight, with high inertia but free to swing. Energy is
extracted from the differential motion of buoy and pendulum.
1. Heaving Float Type (Contd...)

In another version, a hydraulic pump is operated by the motion of a

buoy to raise water to an onshore reservoir and passed through a
turbo-generator to generate electricity.

In a Swedish design, a submerged flexible tube attached to a buoy is

used as an air pump. The motion of the buoy stretches the tube,
decreasing its volume to provide the pumping action.
 Air In
Float (Buoy) Float (Buoy)
Air In Float (Buoy)

Check Valve Reservoir

Flexible Tube
Air Pump
Reaction Plate
Air Out
In Out Hydraulic Pump
Compressed Air
Check valve Storage Out
Water In
Check valve
Anchor Anchor
Sea Bed Sea Bed Sea Bed

(a) Float with Air Pump (b) Float with Flexible Tube Air Pump (c) Float with Hydraulic Pump

Heavy-Float type devices

2. Pitching Type
In pitching type devices, the waves strike horizontally on a floating
piece or flap causing it to deflect. In one such model, several cam-
shaped floating pieces (known as nodding ducks) are hinged to a
common flexible linkage or spine to form a nodding duck assembly.
A wave entering from the left turns the beak of the duck in the direction
of motion. The duck swings backward with the trough of the wave once
the peak has passed over it. It then oscillates about its axis. The shape of
the duck is optimised to extract maximum power.
The rachet and wheel mechanism converts the motion of the ducks to a
common shaft. Power collected by an individual duck is thus pooled to
drive the generator through linkages and gears. The main advantage of
this system is that during an unusually large wave, the duck can flip over
and recover again.
3. Heaving and Pitching-Float Type
Pitching and heaving motion of a float can also be used to extract
wave energy. Several designs have been tried. A system consisting of
three pontoons, which move relative to each other in the wave.

A damper plate is attached to a central pontoon, which ensures that it

stays still as the fore and aft pontoon move relative to the central
pontoon by pitching about the hinges. Energy is extracted by hydraulic
pumps attached to hinges. Electricity can be generated via a hydraulic
turbine and generator.
 Hydraulic Pump
Equipment
cabin
Wave

Hinge Hinge
Central Aft Pontoon
Fore Pontoon
Pontoon
Steel Tubes

Damper Plate

Three Pontoon with Hydraulic Pump

4. Oscillating Water-column Type
This device comprises a partly submerged
concrete or steel structure, which has an
opening to the sea below the water line, Well’s
Turbine
thereby enclosing a column of air above to
rise and fall, which alternately compresses
or depressurises the air column. The air is
Wave
allowed to flow through a turbine, which Air Column

drives the generator. The specially

Water
developed axial flow Well’s turbine, which Column

operates with either directions of air flow,

is used to extract energy. A conventional
(unidirectional) air turbine with rectifying
valves can also be used.
4. Oscillating Water-column Type
Main advantages of oscillating
water column device are the
following :
(i) The air velocity can be increased
by reducing the cross section
area of the air channel. Thus the
slow wave motion can be
coupled to high-speed turbine
motion.
(ii) Generating equipment are kept
away from immediate saline
water environment.
5. Surge Devices
When a moving wave is constricted, a surge is
produced raising its amplitude. Such a device is
known as tapered channel device (TAPCHAN).
The TAPCHAN comprises a gradually narrowing
channel with wall heights typically 3 to 5 m above
sea level. The waves enter from the wide end of the
channel, and as they propagate towards narrower
region, the wave heights get amplified until the
crests spill over the walls to a reservoir, which
provides a stable water supply to a low head
turbine.
The arrangement can be implemented successfully
at low-tide sites only.
An offshore, floating wave power vessel having TAPCHAN plant on a steel platform is
suggested to make the system insensitive to tidal range.
 OCEAN THERMAL ENERGY
OCEAN THERMAL ENERGY EXISTS IN THE FORM OF
TEMPERATURE DIFFERENCE BETWEEN THE WARM
SURFACE WATER AND COLDER DEEP WATER.

A HEAT ENGINE GENERATES POWER UTILISING A

WELL-ESTABLISHED THERMODYNAMIC PRINCIPLE,
THROUGH AN ENGINE, CONVERTING A PART OF THE
HEAT INTO WORK.
 OCEAN THERMAL ENERGY
THE SURFACE WATER WORKS AS A HEAT SOURCE AND
THE DEEP WATER AS A HEAT SINK TO CONVERT PART
OF THE HEAT TO MECHANICAL ENERGY AND HENCE
INTO ELECTRICAL ENERGY.

THE FACILITY PROPOSED TO ACHIEVE THIS

CONVERSION IS KNOWN AS OTEC (OCEAN THERMAL
ENERGY CONVERSION).
A MINIMUM TEMPERATURE DIFFERENCE OF 20o IS
REQUIRED FOR PRACTICAL ENERGY CONVERSION.

THE RESOURCE POTENTIAL IS EXPECTED TO BE MANY

TERAWATTS.
THE MAIN ADVANTAGES OF OTEC ARE :

(I) THE RESOURCE SUPPLIES STEADY POWER WITHOUT

FLUCTUATIONS AND INDEPENDENT OF VAGARIES OF
WEATHER

(II)THE AVAILABILITY HARDLY VARIES FROM SEASON TO

SEASON

(III)AT A SUITABLE SITE THE RESOURCE IS ESSENTIALLY

LIMITED ONLY BY SIZE OF THE SYSTEM
THE MAIN ADVANTAGES OF OTEC ARE :

(IV) THE REQUIRED MACHINERY REQUIRES ONLY

MARGINAL IMPROVEMENTS IN WELL TRIED
ENGINEERING DEVICES i.e. HEAT EXCHANGER,
TURBINE ETC. NO DRAMATICALLY NEW OR
PHYSICALLY IMPOSSIBLE DEVICES ARE REQUIRED.

(V) IT ALSO HAS THE ABILITY TO CREATE SOME

USEFUL BY-PRODUCTS
MAJOR DISADVANTAGES OF OTEC ARE :

(I) LOW EFFICIENCY

(II) HIGH INSTALLATION COST

Glossary :
Moorings :
(A mooring refers to any permanent structure to which a vessel may be secured. Examples include quays)
A wharf, quay (/ˈkiː/, also /ˈkeɪ/ or /ˈkweɪ/[1]), staith or staithe is a structure on the shore of a harbor or on the
bank of a river or canal where ships may dock to load and unload cargo or passengers. Such a structure includes
one or more berths (mooring locations), and may also include piers, warehouses, or other facilities necessary for
handling the ships.
Pontoon may refer to:
In buoyant devices
Float (nautical), an air-filled structure providing buoyancy
Any of various objects that float on pontoons, including:
Pontoon (boat), a flat-bottomed boat supported by two or more pontoons
Pontoon effect, the tendency of pontoons to capsize when a heavy load with a high centre of gravity is
placed on it
A floatplane, also known as a pontoon plane
A floating dock (jetty)
Pontoon bridge, a bridge supported by shallow draft open boats or encased float

A fore-and-aft rig is a sailing rig consisting mainly of sails that are set along the line of the keel rather than
perpendicular to it. Such sails are described as fore-and-aft rigged.