Chapter 4

Local Area Networks

Layer 2: The Datalink Layer
 The datalink layer provides point-to-
point connectivity between devices over
the physical connections provided by
the underlying physical layer
 The datalink layer breaks a data stream
into chunks called frames, or cells.
Layer 2: The Datalink Layer
 The datalink layer provides a reliable
communications link between devices.
 Three key functions:
 error detection
 error correction
 flow control
 In LANs the datalink layer can be broken
down into two sublayers: media access
control (MAC) and logical link control (LLC).
Datalink Layer Addressing
 MAC address is 48 bits long
 Equal to 12 hexadecimal digits
 1st 2 bits indentify the type of address
 Next 22 bits identify the manufacturer
 Last 24 bits are the unique serial number of the card
 MAC example: 00-EO-15-9A-57-E6 (in hex)
 000000001110000000010101100110100101011111100110
(in binary)
 MAC addresses must be unique within each
network segment
Datalink Layer Addressing
 Broadcast
 Send to all devices on a network segment
 Destination MAC address is all 1’s
 Unicast
 Send to specific device
 Destination MAC address of receiving device
 Multicast
 Send to a group of devices
Datalink Layer Addressing
 Promiscuous Mode
 Generally devices will ignore all messages
NOT addressed specifically to their MAC
address
 In order for device to receive all messages
being transmitted on a network segment it
must be set to “Promiscuous Mode”
Datalink Layer Addressing

 Frame transmitted to hub

Datalink Layer Addressing

 Frame repeated by hub

 Note MAC addresses
Network Segments
 Least precise term
 All of the devices on a local area
network that can be addressed directly
w/o the use of a router or other layer 3
device
IP Subnet
 Also referred to as just a “subnet”
 A subdivision of an IP address space
 May or may not map directly to a
network segment in modern day
switched networks
Collision & Broadcast Domains
 Collision Domains
 A collection of devices that share media directly
 Only one device can transmit at a time
 Broadcast Domains
 The collection of devices that will hear a broadcast
message sent at the DataLink layer regardless of
network structure
 The use of bridges and LAN switches allow a single
network segment to be broken into multiple collision
domains although they remain a part of the same
broadcast domain
 Collision & Broadcast Domains

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 Collision & Broadcast Domains

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History of LAN Architectures
 ALOHAnet (Univ. of Hawaii 1970)
 Ethernet (Xerox 1973)
 DECNet (Digital Equipment Corp. 1975)
 ARCNet (Datapoint corp. 1976)
 Token Ring (IBM 1985)
 Local Talk (Apple 1985)
 Wireless LAN/WLAN (IEEE 1991, Apple 1999)
LAN Architecture Model
 A network’s architecture consists of a:
1. Access methodology
 CSMA/CD, CSMA/CA, Token Passing, etc.
2. Logical topology
 Sequential Access or Broadcast Access
3. Physical topology
 Bus, Ring, Star, Mesh
 No single architecture is best in all circumstances.
 Network Configuration = Architecture + Media
Access Methodology
 CSMA/CD
 Carrier sense multiple access w/collision detection
 Propagation Delay
 Time it takes signal from source to reach destination
 CSMA/CA
 Carrier sense multiple access w/collision avoidance
 Token Passing
 Device makes request to transmit and must posses
the “token” before it can transmit
 Ensures transmitting device has 100% of channel
 CSMA/CD vs. Token Passing

 CSMA/CD becomes less efficient at high bandwidth

demand.
Logical Topology
 Method of Delivering Data
1. Sequential
 Data is passed from one node to the next until
it reaches its destination
 Also known as a ring logical topology
2. Broadcast
 Data is sent to all nodes simultaneously
 Each node decides if data is addressed to it
specifically
Physical Topology
 Ring
 Packets passed sequentially
 Bus
 Linear arrangement of devices
 Terminators at both ends
 Any loose connection downs entire LAN
 Star
 Used in most modern networks
 Single point of failure
 Mesh
 Multiple paths between source & destination
LAN Technology Model
A LAN, regardless of network architecture,
requires the following components:
 A Central Wiring Concentrator
 Hub, MAU, Concentrator, or LAN Switch
 Media
 Network Interface Cards (NICs)
 Physical link between PC & media
 Network Interface Card Drivers
 Interface between NIC & Operating System (OS)
 Network OS & Applications
LAN Technology Architecture
LAN Technology Choices
 NIC Technology Analysis Grid

 Servers should
contain faster NICs
than clients to
prevent bottlenecks

 NICs need to be
compatible with CPU
bus, chosen media, &
network architecture
 Ethernet
 “Born” May 22, 1973
 Based on Aloha Net (Univ. of Hawaii)
 Invented by Robert Metcalfe
 MIT graduate
 Developed Ethernet with Robert
Boggs at Xerox’s Palo Alto
Research Center (PARC)
 Founder of the 3COM company
Robert Metcalfe receiving the U.S.
National Medal of Technology (2003)
Ethernet
 Frame-based computer networking
architecture for LANs
 Traditional Ethernet can be defined as
follows:
 Access methodology: CSMA/CD
 Logical topology: Broadcast
 Physical topology: Historically—bus,
currently—star
Ethernet Standards
 3 Standards:
1. DIX 1.0 (Digital, Intel, Xerox)
2. Ethernet II (DIX 2.0)
3. IEEE 802.3/802.2
 Ethernet Frame Layout

 802.3 length field indicates length of the variable-length 802.2 LLC data field
containing all upper-layer embedded protocol headers. 802.2 info includes DSAP
& SSAP.
Ethernet Nomenclature
 XbaseY
 X=speed
 Base=Baseband transmission
 One frequency, both directions
 Y=media
 10baseT
 Typical FastEthernet Architecture
 Dual Speed  Extended Star
Hub or Switch Topology
 Autosensing
Ports
Gigabit Ethernet
 Also known as 1000BaseX, is an upgrade to
fast Ethernet that was standardized as IEEE
802.3z :
 1000BaseSX: uses short wavelength laser
multimode fiber optic media, primarily for
horizontal building cabling.
 1000BaseLX: uses long wavelength laser single
mode fiber optic media, primarily for high-speed
campus backbone applications.
 1000BaseTX: uses four pair of CAT 5e UTP with
a maximum distance of 100 m.
Token Ring
 Access methodology: Token passing
 Logical Topology: Sequential
 Physical Topology: Star
 IEEE 802.5
 Once contended with 802.3
 New installations are uncommon
ATM on the LAN
 Asynchromnous Transfer Mode
 Switched technology originally developed
for WANs
 ATM LAN Emulation (LANE)
 LANE required for mixed environments
 MAC addresses must be translated into
ATM addresses
Wireless LANs
 IEEE 802.11 standard
 CSMA/CD at MAC layer
 802.11 frames are similar to 802.3
Ethernet frames
Wireless LANs – 802.11b
 11 Mbps theoretical, 4 Mbps practical
 2.4 Ghz band – subject to interference
from common electronic equipment
 Shared access – sensitive to number of
simultaneous users
 Commonly available, inexpensive
 Range is measured in 100’s of feet,
lower indoors.
Wireless LANs – 802.11g
 Interoperates with, similar to 802.11b
 54 Mbps theoretical
 Same band
 Similar range
 Also very common, inexpensive
 802.11n – 600 Mbps theoretical (in draft stage)
Wireless LANs
 Care must be taken in wireless LAN designs
Wireless LANs
 Wireless access points can provide for
client access or provide a bridge
Wireless LANs
 A wireless client will access the stronger channel
OSI Layers 1 and 2
 LAN Interconnection Hardware
 Many stand-alone hubs may be cascaded
 5-4-3 Rule

Stackable Hubs

Stand-alone Hubs
 LAN Interconnection
Hardware
 Enterprise hubs have modular design
Hub Functional Comparison
Network Management
 SNMP is used to manage network devices
LAN Interconnection Hardware

 Shared media – a “party line”

 Fixed bandwidth shared by all stations
LAN Interconnection Hardware

 Multiple, simultaneous connections at the same

rate
LAN Interconnection
Hardware
 LAN switches use Datalink (MAC)
addresses
Switching
 Switching is a datalink layer process,
making forwarding decisions based on
the contents of layer two frame
addresses
 Switches are transparent devices,
receiving every frame broadcast on a
port
Switching
 A switch checks the source address of
each frame it receives and adds that
source address to the local address
table (LAT) for the port.
 The switch is learning, without having to
be manually reconfigured, about new
workstations that might have been
added to the network.
Store and Forward Switching
 The entire frame is read into switch
memory.
 Bad frames are not forwarded.
Cut-through Switching
 Only the address information in the
header is read before beginning
processing.
 Very fast
 Bad frames are forwarded.
Error-free Cut-through Switching
 Aka “Adaptive Switching”
 Automatically selects best switching
method for each port
Advantages of Using Switches
 Switches can be used to segment networks to
improve performance