WDM Concepts and Components

A powerful aspect of an optical communication link is that many different

wavelengths can be sent along the fibre simultaneously. The technology of
combining a number of wavelengths onto the same fibre is known as
wavelength-division multiplexing or WDM. The key system features of WDM
are as follows:

 Capacity upgrade. WDM can increase the capacity of a fibre network

dramatically.
 Transparency. An important aspect of WDM is that each optical channel
can carry any transmission format
 Wavelength routing. The use of wavelength-sensitive optical routing
devices makes it possible to use wavelength as another dimension in
designing communication network and switches.
 Wavelength switching. Whereas wavelength-routed networks are based
on a rigid fibre infrastructure, wavelength-switched architectures allow
reconfigurations of the optical layer.
 WDMConcepts and Components
Operational Principles of WDM
In a standard point-to-point links, signals from different light sources use
separate and uniquely assigned optical fibres. Since an optical source has a
narrow linewidth, this type of transmission makes use of only a very narrow
portion of the transmission bandwidth capability of a fibre. This can be seen
from figure below, which depicts the attenuation of light in a silica fibre as a
function of wavelength.

By using a number of light sources, each emitting at a different peak that is

sufficiently spaced from its neighbour, the integrities of the independent
message from each source are maintained.
 WDMConcepts and Components
Operational Principles of WDM
The implementation of WDM network requires a variety of passive and/or
active devices to combine, distribute, isolate, and amplify optical power at
different wavelength. Figure below shows the use of such components in a
typical WDM link.

Here, a multiplexer is needed to combine the optical outputs into a serial

spectrum of closely spaced wavelength signals and couple them onto a
single fibre. At he receiving end, a demultiplexer is required to separate the
optical signals into appropriate detection channels for signal processing.
 WDMConcepts and Components
Passive Components
Passive devices operates completely in the optical domain to split and
combine light streams. They include N x N couplers (with N  2), power
splitters, power taps, and star couplers.
Basically, most passive WDM devices are variations of a star-coupler
concept. Figure below shows a generic star coupler, which can perform both
power combining and splitting.

In the broadest application, star couplers combine the light streams from
two or more input fibres and divide them among several output fibres. In the
general case, the splitting is done uniformly for all wavelengths.
 WDMConcepts and Components
Passive Components

A common fabrication method for an N x N splitter is to fuse together the

core of N single-mode fibres over a length of few millimetres.

The optical power inserted through one of the N fibre entrance
ports gets divided uniformly into the cores of the N output
fibres through evanescent power coupling in the fused region.
Couplers with 64 inputs and outputs are possible, although,
more commonly, the size tends to be less than 10.
The three fundamental technologies for making passive
components are based on optical fibres, integrated optical
waveguides, and bulk micro- optics
 WDM Concepts and Components
Passive ComponentsThe 2 x 2 fibre coupler

The 2 x 2 coupler is fabricated by twisting together, melting,

and pulling two single-mode fibres so they get fused
together over a uniform section of length W, as shown in
figure below.

ut and output fibre has a long tapered section of lengt

The total draw length is
L = 2L + W.
This device is known as a fused
biconical tapered coupler.
P0 is the input power, P1 is the throughout power, and P2 is the power coupled
into the second fibre. The parameters P3 and P4 are extremely low signal
levels resulting from backward reflections and scattering.

As the input light P0 propagates along the taper in fibre 1 and into the coupling
region W, there is a significant decrease in the V number owing to the
reduction in the ratio r/, where r is the reduced fibre radius.

As the signal enters the coupling region, an increasingly larger portion of the
input field now propagates outside the core of the fibre. Depending on the
dimensioning of the coupling region, any desired fraction of this decoupled
field can be recoupled into the other fibre. These devices are also known as
directional couplers.
•Passive Components
• The 2 x 2 fibre coupler
• The optical power coupled from one fibre to another can be
varied through three parameters:

 The axial length of the coupling region.

 The size of the reduced radius r in the coupling region.
 The difference r in the radii of the two fibres in the
coupling region.

• The coupling length is normally fixed, so that only L and r

change as the coupler is elongated. Typical values for W
and L are a few millimetres and
• r/r is around 0.015.
Assuming that the coupler is lossless, the expression for the
power P2 coupled from one fibre to another over an axial
distance z is

P2  P0 sin 2 kz

where k is the coupling coefficient describing the interaction between the
fields in the two fibres. By conservation of power, for identical-core fibres we
have
P1 P0 P2  P0 1 sin kz  P
2
0 cos2

This shows that the phase of thekz  fibre always lags 90 behind the
driven
phase of the driving fibre.
• The 2 x 2 fibre coupler
Figure below shows the relation between the phase of the driven and the driving
fibres.

As a result of this phase relationship, the 2 x 2 coupler is a

directional coupler. That is, no energy can be coupled into a
wave travelling backward in the negative-z direction in the
driven waveguide.
• The 2 x 2 fibre coupler
Figure below shows how k varies with wavelength for the
final 15 mm long coupler.

Thus,different performance couplers can be made by varying

the parameters W, L, r, and r for a specific wavelength.
Optical Isolator is essentially a passive device which
allows the flow of optical signal power (for a particular
wavelength or a wavelength band) in only one direction
preventing reflections in the backward direction.
Ideally, an optical isolator should transmit all the signal power in the
desired forward direction.
•The wavelength blocking feature makes the optical isolator a very
attractive device for use with optical amplifiers in order to protect them
from backward reflections. In addition, magneto-optic devices can be
used to function as isolators.
•It is also possible to develop optical waveguide isolators using either
the TE or TM modes for the propagation of an optical signal.
•Optical isolator works by rotating the plane of polarization of incoming
light ray. Consider that, incoming light has vertical polarization (vertical
SOP) as shown in figure
•This light allowed to pass through first polarized; whose function is to
pass the light having only vertical SOP. The light is then passed through
Faraday rotor. It rotates the polarization by 45°
•The polarizer 2 is designed in such a way that it passes the light ray
having SOP rotated by 45°. Thus the light gets propagated in the
forward direction without any loss.

•Now the reflected light with 45°orientation gets passed through the
polarizer 2. The faraday rotor again provides orientation by 45°. Thus
the original vertical SOP becomes horizontal SOP.

•Polarizer 1 is designed to pass the light having vertical SOP only.

Thus the reflected light, having horizontal SOP will be blocked. Thus
the optical isolation is provided.
 Optical Circulators:

Isolators can be connected together to form multiport devices where,

depending upon their isolation characteristics, an optical signal can leave
the device at an end terminal or it can continue to flow towards the next
connected isolator.
ii. The resulting device is generally known as a circulator, taking its
name from the path of the optical signal which follows a closed loop
or a circle.
iii. Such a device is shown in Figure where three isolators are
interconnected to form a three-port device which does not discard the
backward reflections but directs them to another isolator.
iv. Therefore the signal continues to travel from isolator 1 to isolator
2 and finally it terminates at the end terminal of isolator 3.
In order to prevent the signal going back to the input port 1,
no connection is usually permitted between port 3 and port 1.
•When a signal is transmitted from port 1 to port 2, however,
the device simultaneously allows another optical signal to
travel from port 2 to port 3.

Commercially available optical circulators exhibit insertion

losses around 1 dB and high isolation in the range of 40 to
50 dB centered at signal wavelengths of 1.3 and 1.5 μm.
 FIBER GRATINGS

The Fiber Bragg Grating (FBG) is a periodic structure

fabricated inside the core of the optical fiber. The
periodicity could be mechanical like variation of the
core diameter or it could be electrical like variation
of the refractive index of the core.

In the periodic structure like the FBG the coupling of

energy between different co propagating and counter-
propagating modes of the fiber takes place. The mode
coupling phenomenon is a strong function of wavelength.
Fiber Bragg Grating
Multiple Interference
• More slits create a narrower region
of constructive interference.
– Same relationship

d sin   m
 Diffraction Grating
• A grating consists of a large
number of uniformly spaced slits.
– Measured in slits per cm
– Example: 50,000 /cm equals 200
nm spacing

• Though it uses interference, it is

called a diffraction grating.
– Large number of scatterers, like
diffraction
 Reflection Grating
• Closely spaced ridges can form a grating for
reflection.
 FIBER GRATINGS

A grating is an important element in WDM systems for

combining and separating individual wavelengths. Basically a
grating is a periodic structure or perturbation in a material.
This variation in the material has the property of reflecting or
transmitting light in a certain direction depending on the
In FBG two identical counter propagating modes get coupled and
the energy is transferred from the forward traveling to the
backward traveling mode. Consequently we get reflection of the
modal energy which is wavelength dependent. The FBG
therefore reflects certain
wavelengths keeping propagation of other wavelengths
practically un-affected.
Applications of Fiber Bragg Grating
(1)Narrow band filtering
(2) WDM Add/Drop Mux/DeMux
(3)Dispersion compensation
(4)Gain Equilization
(5)Fiber laser
(6)Raman Amplifier
(7)Phase conjugator
(8)Wavelength converter
(9)Mode converter
Fiber Bragg gratings
One embodiment is to create a fib-siner Bragg grating (FBG) in an optical fiber.
This can be done by using two ultraviolet light beams to set up a periodic
interference pattern in a section of the core of a germaniam-doped silica fiber.
Thus gratings can be categorized as either transmitting or reflecting.
Here we will concentrate on reflection gratings, since these are widely
used in optical fiber communications.

Grating principle

Figure defines key parameters for a reflection grating. Here θi is the

incident angle of the light, θd is the diffracted angle, and ˄ (lambda) is

the period of the grating (the periodicity of the structural variation in the
material).
In a transmission grating consisting of a series of equally spaced slits,
the spacing between two adjacent slits is called the pitch of the grating.
 The basic grating equation is given by
ᴧ(sinөi-sinФm)=mλ
Where , ᴧ = grating period
өi = Incident angle(measured against normal)
Фm = Angle of refraction angle(measured against normal)
m= order of grating
λ= Free space wavelength of incident ray
•Grating can separate individual wavelength as grating
equation Is satisfied at different points of different
wavelengths.

•Number of reflected and refracted rays are produced

corresponding to different orders i.e. m =0,1,2….
 ERBIUM DOPED FIBER AMPLIFIERS (EDFA)

 In optical communication network, signals travel through

fibers for very large distances without significant
attenuation. However, when distances become hundreds
of kilometers, it becomes necessary to amplify the signal
during transit.
 The principle of rare earth doped fiber amplifier is the
same as that of lasers excepting that such amplifiers do
not require a cavity whereas a cavity is required for laser
Optical fiber amplifiers provide in-line amplification of optical
signals by effecting stimulated emission of photons by rare earth
ions implanted in the core of the optical fiber. Erbium is the
preferred rare earth for this purpose though amplifiers using
Praseodymium are also in use.
 EDFAs are used to provide amplification in long distance optical
communication with fiber loss less than 0.2 dB/km by providing
amplification in the long wavelength window near 1550 nm.
Advantages of EDFA are as follows:
 It provides in-line amplification of signal without requiring electronics i.e., the
signal does not need to be converted to
 electrical signal before amplification. The amplification is entirely optical.

 It provides high power transfer efficiency from pump to signal power.

 The amplification is independent of data rate.
 The gain is relatively flat so that they can be cascaded for long distance use.
 On the debit side, the devices are large, there is gain saturation and there is also
presence of amplified spontaneous emission (ASE).
 Composition of Rare Earth Doped Fiber :
The fiber core consists of glassy material such as SiO and GeO . Rare earth
ions like Er, Pr are doped into the core. The cladding material is mainly SiO .

Transition metal oxides, such as, Ti2O , Al2O , Sn2O etc.

which are known as intermediates, have strong absorption in
visible and in the near infrared. If such oxides are present in the
glass network, they will cause losses. Hence such impurities must
be removed from the host.
An alternative to using oxide glass is to use fluorozirconate (ZrF ) glass.
commonly known as ZBLAN glass. Though its glassy structure is not
fully understood, it provides a good host for rare earth ions. The major
glass forming components of ZBLAN glass are Al (which along with Zr,
acts as a glass former), La (intermediate), Ba and Na (network modifiers).
The La atoms are easily substituted by rare earths such as Er.
The figure above shows a typical configuration of EDFA based
communication system. The optical output is first passed through
an optical isolator which prevents reflection, i.e. allows light to
move from left to right. The coupler allows the pump input to be
fed into the fiber with minimum loss.
In the absence of any radiation, the ions are in their ground states.
If a beam of light ofappropriate frequency is incident on the system,
the ions will be excited to the higher levels. This radiation, called
pump radiation , if chosen at 980 nm, will excite the ions to the
level. The lifetime of the ions in the level is approximately. The
ions readily decay to the meta stable level by non-radiative
transition, i.e. by releasing heat.
Principle of EDFA:

Energy levels of Erbium doped system is shown in the figure. It may be noted
that the energy levels form three groups of energy levels marked with their
specro scopic notations. For simplicity, we will model these three groups of
energy levels by three sharp levels of energy denoted by and, representing
respectively the upper, the meta stable and the ground states.
 WDMConcepts and Components
Passive Components
• The 2 x 2 fibre coupler

In specifying the performance of an optical coupler, one usually indicates

the percentage division of optical power between the output ports by means
of the splitting ratio or coupling ratio.
Splitting ratio = ⎜⎛ P2 ⎟100%
⎝ P1  P2
⎞
⎠
A coupler could also be made in which almost all the
optical power at 1500 nm goes to one port and almost all
the energy around 1300 nm goes to the other port.
 WDMConcepts and Components
Passive Components
• The 2 x 2 fibre coupler
In the previous analysis, we have assumed for simplicity, that the device is
lossless. However, in any practical coupler there is always some light that is
lost when a signal goes through it. The two basic losses are
 Excess loss
It is defined as the ratio of the input power to the total output power
Excess loss =

10log⎛⎜ P0
 Insertion loss ⎟ ⎝ 1 2
⎞ P  path.
It refers to the loss for a particular port-to-port P For the path from
⎠
input port i to output port j

Insertion loss =
⎛ Pi
⎟
10 log⎜⎞
⎝⎜ Pj ⎠
⎟
 WDMConcepts and Components
Passive Components
• The 2 x 2 fibre coupler
Another performance parameter is crosstalk, which measure the degree of
isolation between the input at one port and the optical power scattered or
reflected back into the other input port.

Crosstalk = 10 log⎜⎛ P3 ⎞
⎟ ⎝ 0
⎠P
 WDMConcepts and Components
Passive Components
• The 2 x 2 fibre coupler
Example
A 2 x 2 biconical tapered fibre coupler has an input power level P0 = 200 W. The
output powers at the three ports are P1 = 90 W, P2 = 85 W, and P3 = 6.3 nW.
Calculate the coupling ratio, the excess loss, the insertion loss (port 0 to port 1, and
port 0 to port 2), and the crosstalk.

Coupling ratio =
⎛85
 ⎞
⎜
⎝ 100%
⎠  48.6%
Excess loss = 90  85
⎟ ⎛ 200
10 log⎜⎞ ⎟  0.85dB
90  85
Insertion loss (port 0⎝to port 1) =
200 ⎞
⎠
Insertion loss (port 0 to port 2) = 10 log⎛⎝
⎜ ⎟  3.47dB
90
⎠ 200
Crosstalk = 10 log⎛⎜⎝ ⎞
⎟  3.72dB
85
10 log⎜⎛ 6.3103 ⎞⎟  45dB ⎠
⎝ 200 ⎠
 WDMConcepts and Components
Passive Components
• Scattering Matrix Representation
One can also analyse a 2 x 2 guided-wave coupler as a four-terminal device
that has two inputs and two outputs, as shown in figure.

Either all-fibre or integrated-optics devices can be analysed in terms of

scattering matrix S, which defines the relationship between the two input
field strengths a1 and a2, and the two output field strengths b1 and b2.
 WDMConcepts and Components
Passive Components
• Scattering Matrix Representation
By definition

b  Sa
where

⎡b 1 ⎤ , ⎡a1 ⎤ , 
⎡s11
⎢ s12 ⎤
⎥
b ⎢ ⎥ a  ⎢⎣a 2
S s s
⎣b2 ⎣ 21 22
Here, ⎦sij = |sij| exp(jij⎥⎦) represents the ⎦coupling coefficient of optical power
transfer from input port i to output port j, with |sij| being the magnitude of sij
and ij being its phase at port j relative to port i.
 WDMConcepts and Components
Passive Components
• Scattering Matrix Representation
For an actual physical device, two restriction apply to the scattering matrix S
 One is a result of the reciprocity condition arising from the fact that
Maxwell’s equations are invariant for time inversion; that is they have
two solutions in opposite propagating directions through the device,
assuming single-mode operation.
 The other restriction arises from energy-conservation principles under
the assumption that the device is lossless.
From the first condition

From the second condition s12  s21

I 0  b1* b1  b2* b2  Ii  a1* a1  a2* a2

or b b  a 
where “*” means the complex conjugate and “+” indicates the transpose
conjugate a
 WDMConcepts and Components
Passive Components
• Scattering Matrix Representation
Substituting last two relations into the scattering matrix equation yields the
following set of three equations
s* s  s* s 
1*
s11s11  s *12s 12
11 12 12
22 0
s* s  s* s
22 22 12
12 1
If we now assume that the fraction (1-◻) of the optical power from input 1
appears at output port 1, with the remainder  going to port 2, then we have
s1,1 whic1h is a real number between 0 and 1. Here, we have
assumed that the electric field at output 1 has zero phase shift relative to
the input at port 1; that is, 11=0.We also make the simplifying assumption
that the coupler
have withis symmetric. Then,expresssi
=0. Using these analogous to 1we
o ns, the effect
 can at port 1, we
determine the
22 2 2
phases 12=0 of the coupled outputs relative to the input signals and find
constrains on the composite outputs when both input ports are receiving
signals.
 WDMConcepts and Components
Passive Components
• Scattering Matrix Representation
Inserting the expressions for s11 and s22 into s* s  s* s  and
letting s12 = |s12|exp(j12) we have 0
11 12 12 22

exp j212   1

where
 |s12| is the magnitude of s12
 12 is the phase of s12
which holds when
12  2n where n = 0,1,2,…
2

1 matrix becomes
so that the scattering

⎡ 1  
S ⎢
 1⎤ ⎦
j ⎣ j
⎥
 WDMConcepts and Components
Passive Components
• The 2 x 2 waveguide coupler
Figure below shows two type of 2 x 2 waveguide couplers.

(a) uniformly symmetric directional waveguide coupler, (b) uniformly asymmetric directional coupler

Analogous to fused-fibre couplers, waveguide devices have an intrinsic

wavelength dependence in the coupling region, and the degree of
interaction between the guides can be varied through the guide width w, the
gap s between the guides, and the refractive index n1 between the guides.
 WDMConcepts and Components
Passive Components
• The 2 x 2 waveguide coupler
In real waveguides, with absorption and scattering losses, the propagation
constant z is a complex number given by

 z  r  j 2
where
 r is the real part of the propagation constant
  is the optical loss coefficient in the guide

Hence, the total power contained in both guides decreases by a factor exp(-
z) along their length.
 WDMConcepts and Components
Passive Components
• The 2 x 2 waveguide coupler
The transmission characteristics of the symmetric coupler can be expressed
through the coupled-mode theory approach to yield
P  P sin 2 e  z
2 0
kz 
where the coupling coefficient is
2 y2 qe qs
k
 z wq2  y2 

This is a function of the waveguide propagation constant y and z, the gap
width and separation, and the extinction coefficient q in the y direction
outside the waveguide, which is

q2  2
y  k12

 WDMConcepts and Components
Passive Components
• The 2 x 2 waveguide coupler
The theoretical power distribution as a function of the guide length is as
shown in figure below, where we have used k = 0.6 mm-1 and  = 0.02 mm-
1.
 WDMConcepts and Components
Passive Components
• The 2 x 2 waveguide coupler
Analogous to the fused-fibre coupler, complete power transfer to the second
guide occurs when the guide length L is


L
2k
m with m = 0,1,2,…
1
Since k is found to be almost monotonically proportional to wavelength, the
coupling ratio P2/P0 rises and falls sinusoidally from 0 to 100 percent as a
function of wavelength, as figure below illustartes generically (assuming
here, for simplicity, that the guide loss is negligible).
 WDMConcepts and Components
Passive Components
• The 2 x 2 waveguide coupler
Example
A symmetric waveguide coupler has a coupling coefficient k=0.6mm-1. Find
the coupling length for m=1.


Using L
2k
m we find L = 5.24 mm

1
 WDMConcepts and Components
Passive Components
• The 2 x 2 waveguide coupler
When the two guides do not have the same widths the amplitude of the
coupled power is dependent on wavelength, and the coupling ratio becomes

P2 k 2
 
 gz e
z

P0  gsin
2
where 2

g 2  k 2  ⎛  ⎟⎞
2

⎜ ⎝ 2
with  being the phase difference⎠ between the two guides in the z
direction.
 WDMConcepts and Components
Passive Components
• The 2 x 2 waveguide coupler
With this type of configuration, one can fabricate devices that have a
flattened response in which the coupling ratio is less than 100 percent in a
specific desired wavelength range, as shown in figure below.

The main cause of the wave-flattened respo nse at the lower wavelength
results from suppression by the amplitude term k2/g2. This asymmetric
characteristic can be used in a device where only a fraction of power from a
specific wavelength should be tapped off.
 WDMConcepts and Components
Passive Components
• Star Couplers
The principal role of all star couplers is to combine the powers from N inputs
and divide them equally among M output ports. Techniques for creating star
couplers include fused fibres, gratings, micro-optic technologies, and
integrated-optics schemes. The fibre-fusion technique has been a popular
construction method for N x N star couplers.
However, large-scale fabrication of these devices for N > 2 is limited
because of the difficulty in controlling the coupling response between the
numerous fibres during the heating and pulling process. Figure below
shows a generic 4 x 4 fused-fibre star coupler.
 WDMConcepts and Components
Passive Components
• Star Couplers
The total loss of the device consists of its splitting loss plus the excess loss
in each path through the star. The splitting loss is given in decibels by

Splitting loss =
10 log⎜⎛ 1 ⎞⎟ = 10logN
⎝N
For a single input power Pin and N output powers, the excess loss in
⎠
decibels is given by

Fibre star excess loss = ⎛ P ⎞

10log ⎜ in
⎜⎟ N P ⎟
⎝ out ,i ⎠
i1
 WDMConcepts and Components
•Passive Components
• Star Couplers
• An alternative is to construct star couplers by cascading 3-dB couplers.
Figure below shows an example for an 8 x 8 device formed by using twelve 2
x 2 couplers.

A fraction 1/N of the launched power from each input port appears at all
output ports. A limitation to the flexibility or modularity of this technique is
that N is a multiple of 2; that is, N = 2n with the integer n1. The
consequence is that if an extra node needs to be added to a fully connected
N x N network, the N x N star needs to be replaced by a 2N x 2N star,
thereby leaving 2(N - 1)new ports being unused.
 WDMConcepts and Components
Passive Components
• Star Couplers

As can be deduced from figure above, the number of 3-dB couplers needed
to construct an N x N star is

N  N log N
N log N
since there are N /2 ele men2ts in the ve2rticlaolgd2irection and log2N = logN /
c 2

log2 elements horizontally.

If the fraction of power traversing each 3-dB coupler element is FT, with 0 ≤
FT ≤ 1, then the excess loss in decibels is

Excess loss =

10log FTlog 2N
 WDMConcepts and Components
Passive Components
• Star Couplers
The total loss experienced by a signal as it passes through the log2N stages
of the N x N star and gets divided into N outputs is, in decibels,

Total loss = splitting loss + excess loss = ⎛ FTlog2 N ⎞

10log⎜ N
⎝
⎟ ⎠
= 10⎜⎛ log N log FT  log N
⎝ log ⎟ = 101 3.322log FT log N
⎞ 2 ⎠

This shows that the loss increases logarithmically with N.

 WDMConcepts and Components
Passive Components
• Star Couplers
Example
Consider a commercially available 32 x 32 single-mode coupler made from
a cascade of 3-dB fused-fibre 2 x 2 couplers, where 5 percent of the power
is lost in each element. Calculate the excess loss, the splitting loss, and the
total loss.

Excess loss =  
10 log 0.95 log 32 log 2 
1.1dB
Splitting loss =
10 log 32  15dB
Total loss = excess loss + splitting loss = 16.1dB
 WDMConcepts and Components
Passive Components
• Tunable Sources
Many different laser design have been proposed to generate the spectrum
of wavelengths needed for WDM. One can choose from three basic option

 A series of discrete DFB or DBR lasers.

 Wavelength-tunable (or frequency-tunable) lasers.
 A multiwavelength laser array.

The use of discrete single-wavelength lasers is the simplest method. Here,

one hand-select individual sources, each of which operates at a different
wavelength. Although it is straightforward, this method can be expensive
because of the high cost of individual laser. In addition, the sources must be
carefully controlled and monitored to ensure that their wavelengths do not
drift with time and temperature into the spectral region of adjacent sources.
 WDMConcepts and Components
Passive Components
• Tunable Sources
With a frequency-tunable laser, one needs only this one source. These
devices are base on DFB or DBR structures, which have a waveguide-type
grating filter in the lasing cavity. Frequency tuning is achieved either by
changing the temperature of the device, or by altering the injection current
into the active (gain) section or the passive section. This results in a change
in the effective refractive index, which causes a shift in the peak output
wavelength. Figure below illustrates the tuning range of an injection-tunable
three-section DBR laser.
 WDMConcepts and Components
Passive Components
• Tunable Sources
An array of tunable lasers provides a more versatile implementation in large
WDM networks. Most laser arrays are fabricated from a combination of DFB
and MQW architectures. The letters MQW stand for multiple quantum well,
which is a multilayer structure to enhance the carrier and optical
confinement in thin active areas. Basically, MQW allows a low threshol
current in the active area abd DFB is used for frequency tuning. Figure
below shows one possible configuration with several MQW-DFB laser
fabricated on the same wafer.
 WDMConcepts and Components
Passive Components
• Tunable Sources
Other designs utilise an integrated combination of an optical source (either
a broadband laser diode or an LED), a waveguide grating multiplexer, and
an optical amplifier. In this method, which is known as spectral slicing, a
broad spectral output (e.g., from an amplified LED) is spectrally sliced by
the waveguide grating to produce a comb of precisely spaced optical
frequencies, which become an array of constant-output source. These
spectral slices are then fed into sequence of individually addressable
wavelength channels that can be modulated externally.
 Resources
• http://www.sifamfo.com/datasheets.php?lang=en-gb
• http://www.aoctech.com/product1201.htm