Digital to Analog

Converters and Diodes

Keith Weaver
James Mulford
Philip Estrada
Outline:
 What is digital to analog converter (DAC)?
 Types of DAC
◦ Binary Weighted Resistor
◦ R-2R Ladder
 Discuss Specifications:
◦ Reference Voltages
◦ Resolution
◦ Speed
◦ Settling Time
◦ Linearity
◦ Errors
 Applications
 Diodes: Theory and applications
◦ Ideal vs. real
◦ Types: Junction and Zener

2
What is Digital-to-Analog Converter
(DAC) ?
 A DAC converts a binary digital signal into an
analog representation of the same signal
 Typically the analog signal is a voltage

output, though current output can also be

used
1 0 0 0 1 1 1
0 1 0 1 0 0 0
0
1
0
1
1
1
1
1
0
1
1
0
1
1 DAC

3
DAC vs. ADC
 ADCs are used in systems to capture “real world”
signals and convert them to “digital” signals.

 DACs are used in systems to capture “digital”

signals and convert them to “real world” signals
that humans can interpret.

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Significance of Reference Voltage in DACs
 DACs rely on an input reference voltage to
generate analog output from digital signals.

DAC

DAC (using Vref and bits as input) inside an SAR ADC

As explained in earlier student lecture on ADC

5
Analog Levels For Sampled Digital Values
 Each binary number sampled by a DAC corresponds
to a different output analog level between 0 and Vref
for Unipolar and Vref and –Vref for Bipolar.

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Sampling Frequency
 Sampling frequency is the number of data
points sampled per unit time

 Sampling frequency must be twice the

frequency of the sampled signal to avoid
aliasing, per Nyquist criteria

 A higher sampling frequency decreases the

sampling period, allowing more data to be
transmitted in the same amount of time

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Output is a Piecewise Function
 This is due to finite sampling frequency
 The analog value is calculated and “held” over

the sampling period

 This results in an imperfect reconstruction of

the original signal

DAC

Ideally Sampled Signal Output typical of a real,

practical DAC due to sample &
hold
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 Filtering
 The analog signal generated by the DAC can
be smoothed using a low pass filter
 This removes the high frequencies required
to sustain the sharp inclines making up the
edges
Piece-wise Analog
Digital Continuous Continuous
Input 0 bit Output Output
011010010101010100101
101010101011111100101
000010101010111110011
010101010101010101010
n bit DAC Filter
111010101011110011000
100101010101010001111

nth bit

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Types of DAC Implementations
 There can be several types of DAC
implementations. Some of them are:

1. Binary-weighted resistor
2. R-2R ladder
3. Pulse-width modulation
4. Oversampling DAC (in EVB used in lab)
5. Thermometer-coded DAC
6. Hybrid DAC

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1. Binary-weighted resistor DAC

• • Details
Assumptions:
o o Use Vref as input voltage
Virtual Ground at Inverting Input
o Use transistors to switch between
o Vout = -IRf
high and ground
o Use resistors scaled by two to
divide voltage on each branch by a
power of two
o V1 is MSB, V4 LSB in this circuit
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1. Binary-weighted resistor DAC

  𝑅𝑓 𝐵 𝑛 −1 𝐵 𝑛 −2 𝐵1 𝐵0
𝑉 𝑜𝑢𝑡 =−
𝑅𝑒𝑞 (
𝑉 𝑟𝑒 𝑓 =− 𝑅 𝑓 𝑉 𝑟𝑒 𝑓
𝑅
+
2𝑅
+ …+ 𝑛 − 2 + 𝑛 −1
2 𝑅 2 𝑅 )
Rf n 1
Bi
Vout  Vref
R
 2
i 0
( n 1) i
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1. Binary-weighted resistor DAC
• Example: take a 4-bit converter,

• Rf /R= a; a = gain.
 B3 B2 B1 B0 
Vout  aVref     
 1 2 4 8 

• Input parameters:
▫ Input voltage Vref = -2V
▫ Binary input = 1011
▫ Coefficient a = ½
1  1 0 1 1  11
Vout    2         1.375V
2 1 2 4 8  8
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1. Binary-weighted resistor DAC
• Resolution: Making LSB as 1 and all other inputs
as 0,
Rf Vref
Vmin 
R 2n-1
Vref
• If Rf = R/2 then resolution is
2n
• Max Vout can be obtained making all input bits
equal to 1 and it can be obtained solving
geometric series in equation (1) as
 1 
Vmax  Vref 1  n 
 2 
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1. Binary-weighted resistor DAC
• Advantages:
▫ Simple
▫ Fast

• Disadvantages
▫ Need large range of resistor values
(2048:1 for 12-bit) with high precision in
low resistor values.
▫ Need very small switch resistances.

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2. R-2R Ladder DAC
B2
B1 Ladder of 2 Resistor Values
B0 R and 2R at Input of Inverting Op-Amp

• All the inputs are Vref followed by switches. Output of switches is B2, B1
and B0 in above circuit.
• Similar to binary weighted DAC, status of switches would define if input
bits to DAC are Vref or 0.

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 2. R-2R Ladder DAC
By adding resistance in series and in parallel we can
derive an equation for the R-2R ladder.

MSB

1 1 1
  LSB
Req 2R 2R
Req  R

By knowing how current flows through the ladder we

can come up with a general equation for R-2R
DACs.  B3 B2 B1 B0 
Vout   I sum Rf   I      Rf
 2 4 8 16 
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2. R-2R Ladder DAC
B2
B1 Ladder of 2 Resistor Values
R and 2R at Input of Inverting
B0 Op-Amp

• Circuit may be analyzed using Thevenin’s theorem (replace network with

equivalent voltage source and resistance). V
• Final result is: I 
R
Rf n 1
Bi
Vout  Vref 
R i  0 2 n i 18
2. R-2R Ladder DAC
 Example
◦ Input: 101101 Rf n 1
Bi
◦ Vref = -5.5 Volts
Vout  Vref 
R i  0 2n i
◦ a=1
◦ Rf /R= a; a = gain.

1 0 1 1 0 1 
Vout  (5.5)(1) 1  2  3  4  5  6 
2 2 2 2 2 2 
Vout  3.867


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2. R-2R Ladder DAC
• Resolution: Making LSB as 1 and all other inputs as
0,
Rf Vref
Vmin 
R 2n

Vref
• If Rf = R then resolution is
2n

• Max Vout can be obtained making all input bits equal

to 1 and it can be obtained solving geometric series
in equation (1) as

1 
Vmax  Vref 1  n 
 2 
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2. R-2R Ladder DAC
• Advantages:
▫ Only 2 resistor values
▫ Lower precision resistors acceptable

• Disadvantages
▫ Slower conversion rate

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Outline:
 What is digital to analog converter (DAC)?
 Types of DAC
◦ Binary Weighted Resistor
◦ R-2R Ladder
 Discuss Specifications:
◦ Reference Voltages
◦ Resolution
◦ Speed
◦ Settling Time
◦ Linearity
◦ Errors
 Applications
 Diodes: Theory and applications
◦ Ideal vs. real
◦ Types: Junction and Zener

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 Reference Voltage (
 The reference voltage determines the range of
outputs from the DAC

 Non-Multiplying DAC
◦ Vref is internally set by the manufacturer and is a
constant (fixed) value
◦ Sometimes Vref is external from manufacturer

 Multiplying DAC
◦ Vref is externally set and can be varied during
operation
◦ Most DACs use this type
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Full Scale Voltage and Resolution
 Full Scale Voltage (Vfs) is the output voltage when all bits
are set high

 The DAC resolution is the amount of variance in output

voltage for every change of the LSB in the digital input
◦ How closely we can approximate the desired output signal
 Higher resolution  Finer Detail  Smaller Voltage Divisions
◦ Data sheets list the resolution in bits
◦ Typical resolution is 8 – 16 bits
  𝑉 𝑟𝑒𝑓
∗𝑉 𝐿𝑆𝐵 = 𝑁
=𝑅𝑒𝑠𝑜𝑙𝑢𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛 N = # of Bits
2
*Resolution depends on ratio of Rf and R as explained in
previous section. This case is similar to R-2R ladder
resolution with Rf=R 24
 Sampling Rate (
 The sampling rate is the rate at which the DAC can convert
the digital input into an output voltage

 The Nyquist Criterion is used to ensure the output correctly

represents the digital input

 
𝑓 𝑠 ≥ 2 𝑓 𝑚𝑎𝑥

 fmax is the max frequency of the analog signal to be

reconstructed

 fs is limited by the input signal clock speed and DAC settling

time
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Settling Time
 The settling time is the interval between a
command to update (change) its output value and
the instant it is within a specified percentage of its
final value

 Any change in the input state will not be reflected

in the output state immediately. There is a time lag
between the two events.

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Linearity
 The linearity is the difference between the
desired analog output and the actual output
over the full range of expected values
 Ideally, a DAC should produce a linear

relationship between a digital input and the

analog output
Analog Output Signal

0000 0001 0010 0011 0100 0101

Digital Input Signal
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Errors
Common DAC Errors:
 Offset Error
 Gain Error
 Full Scale Error
 Resolution Errors
 Non Linearity
 Non-Monotonic
 Settling Time and Overshoot

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Offset Error
 An offset error will cause all the output
voltages to be different from the ideal output
by the error
◦ It can be determined by measuring the output
voltage for a digital input of zero.

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Gain Error
 The gain error is how well the slope of the
actual transfer function matches the slope of
the ideal transfer function
◦ It can be determined by measuring the output
voltage for a digital input of all 1’s

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Full Scale Error
 Full Scale error is the combination of the Gain
Error and the Offset Error

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Resolution Error
 The resolution will determine how close your
output will match the desired signal

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Differential Nonlinearity Error (DNL)
 The difference between two successive digital
output codes is ideally 1 VLSB
 The deviation from a step of 1 VLSB is the DNL
error
◦ Manufacturers will specify the maximum DNL error

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Integral Linearity Error (INL)
 The INL is the difference in the ideal linear
voltage and the actual output voltage for a
given digital code
◦ Manufactures will specify the max INL error

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 Non-Monotonic
 Monotonic Function
◦ A monotonically increasing function will always increase or remain
constant (non-decreasing)
◦ A monotonically decreasing function will always decrease or remain
constant (non-increasing)

 If an increase in the digital input results in a decrease in the

output voltage the DAC is considered non-monotonic
◦ If the DNL error is less than
± 1 LSB the DAC is
guaranteed to be monotonic

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Applications
 Audio/Video  Signal Generators
◦ MP3 Players ◦ Sine Wave generation
◦ CD Players ◦ Square Wave
◦ Cellphones generation
◦ USB Speakers ◦ Random Noise
◦ Analog Monitors generation

36
Outline:
 What is digital to analog converter (DAC)?
 Types of DAC
◦ Binary Weighted Resistor
◦ R-2R Ladder
 Discuss Specifications:
◦ Reference Voltages
◦ Resolution
◦ Speed
◦ Settling Time
◦ Linearity
◦ Errors
 Applications
 Diodes: Theory and applications
◦ Ideal vs. real
◦ Types: Junction and Zener

37
Diodes
 Review of semiconductors
 Ideal Diode Characteristics
 Types of Diodes

◦ Semiconductor Diodes
 P-n Junction Diode
 Zener Diode
 Light Emitting Diode (LED)
 Photodiode

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Semiconductors
 Conductors
◦ Material which allows flow of electric
charge (current). Ex) Copper wiring,
silver (contactor for electric motor)
 Insulators
◦ Material does not allow flow of electric
charge (current). In theory have an
infinite resistivity. Ex) ceramic, glass,
Teflon
 Semiconductors
◦ A material whose electrical conductivity
is poor at low temperatures but is
improved by the application of heat,
light, or voltage.
◦ Electrical conductivity can be increased
and precisely controlled by adding small
impurities in a process called doping

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What is a diode?
 A diode is a two-terminal electronic component
with asymmetric conductance
 It has low (ideally zero) resistance to current
flow in one direction (forward), and high (ideally
infinite) resistance in the other (reverse)

Current Flow Current Flow

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Solid State Diode
 A diode is created when a p-type semiconductor is joined with and
n-type semiconductor by the addition of thermal energy.
 When both materials are joined, the thermal energy causes positive
carriers in the p-type material to diffuse into the n-type region and
negative carriers in the n-type material to diffuse into the p-type
region.
 This creates the depletion region within the diode

Majority carriers

p n

Depletion Region

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Forward and Reverse Bias
 A diode is forward biased if the positive terminal of the battery is connected
to the p-type material.
◦ Current is sustained by the majority carriers.
 A diode is reverse biased if the positive terminal of the battery
is connected to the n-type material.
◦ There is a small reverse current or leakage current sustained by
the minority carriers
 If reverse bias is sufficiently increased, a sudden increase in
reverse current is observed.
DepletionThis Depletion
is known as the Zener or Avalanche
Region Region
effect
Original Size Original Size

p n p n
if

Forward Biased Reverse Biased

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Diode Characteristic Curve
 Ideal Diode - no resistance to current flow in the
forward direction and infinite resistance in the reverse
direction
 Actual Diode – forward resistance not quite zero and
reverse resistance not infinite
I

conduction
region

V
non-conduction
region

Ideal Curve
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Zener Diode
 A diode which allows current to flow in the forward direction in the same manner as an
ideal diode
 But also permits it to flow in the reverse direction when the voltage is above a certain
value known as the breakdown voltage
 Zener diodes have a specified voltage drop when they are used in reverse bias.
 Every p-n junction (i.e. diode) will break down in reverse bias if enough voltage is
applied.
 Able to maintain a nearly constant voltage under conditions of widely varying current.
 Zener diodes are operated in reverse bias for normal voltage regulation.

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Light Emitting Diode (LED)
 Semiconductor device with a p-n junction
 When a forward bias is applied, electrons are able to recombine

with holes within the device, releasing energy in the form of

photons (electroluminescence).
 The color of the light (corresponding to the energy of the photon)

is determined by the energy band gap of the semiconductor

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Photodiode
 Converts light into voltage or current
 Ex) a solar cell is a large area photodiode operating in zero

bias
 Designed to operate in reverse bias
 Many use a P-I-N junction rather than a P-N junction

◦ PIN diode: a diode with a wide, lightly doped 'near' intrinsic

semiconductor region between a p-type semiconductor and an n-
type semiconductor region

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 ? ?
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?

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References
 Previous student presentations.
 http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Digital_to_analog
 http://www.allaboutcircuits.com/vol_4/chpt_13/index.html
 Alicatore, David G. and Michael B Histand. Introduction to Mechatronics and
Measurement Systems, 2nd ed. McGraw-Hill, 2003.
 Walt Kester, “What the Nyquist Criterion Means to Your Sampled Data System
Design”, MT 002 Tutorial, Analog Devices.
 http://www.maxim-ic.com/app-notes/index.mvp/id/641

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