text

Your paragraph text yt fb in ln wp

LINEAR INTEGRATED CIRCUIT
MODULE 5
 Contents
 Need for Data Converters

 Specifications of Data Converters

 Need for Data Converters
 For a digital system it is necessary that the analog data should be changed to an
equivalent digital form before processing

 Similarly, after processing the data, it may be desirable that the final result obtained in
the digital form needs to be converted back to the analog form.

 Thus, data converters are necessary in digital systems.

 A combinational digital circuit which converts the one form of data into the other or vice
versa is called as data converter.
Need for Data Converters
 Specifications of DAC
Resolution - defined as the ratio of maximum analog input voltage that can be represented
in binary and the equivalent binary number.

where,

VFS - the full scale input voltage or maximum analog voltage.

N - is the number of bits that are present in the digital form.

Linearity - It is the measure of the linearity between binary input and analog output, defined as
the precision with which the digital input is converted into analog output.
Accuracy - defined as the maximum deviation between actual converted output and ideal converter
output. Normally accuracy is defined as relative accuracy(accuracy after removing gain and offset
errors) in datasheets.

Monotonicity - A DIA converter is said to be monotonic if its output value increases as the binary
inputs are incremented from one value to the next. That is, the staircase output can have no
downward Step as the binary input is incremented.
Monotonicity of ADC
Settling Time - The most dynamic parameter that represents the time it takes for the output to
settle within a specified band of its final value following a change in the input.

Conversion Time - The amount of time required for a data converter in order to convert the
data (information) of one form into its equivalent data in other form. For ADC, it depends on the
number of bits that are used in the digital output and for DAC, it depends on the number of bits
that are present in the binary (digital) input.

Stability/Temperature sensitivity - Defines the performance of the converter due to the

temperature sensitivity of the reference voltages, the resistors used in the converters, aging effects,
the op-amp and its off set voltages.

Quantization Error - The full-scale range of analog input voltage is quantized for conversion
to a finite number Of steps, the error introduced in the process of quantization. Generally, the
quantization error is specified as LSB.
Offset error - difference between the actual first transition voltage and the ideal first transition
voltage.

Full-scale error - difference between the actual last transition voltage and the ideal last transition
voltage.

Gain error - difference in slope of actual transfer function and the ideal transfer function
Digital-to-Analog Converter
A Digital-to-Analog Converter (DAC) converts digital signals (binary data) into continuous
analog signals, commonly used in audio, video, and control systems to interface digital devices
with real-world analog systems.
 3-bit DAC
A 3-bit Digital-to-Analog Converter (DAC) takes a 3-bit binary input (000 to 111) and
converts it into a corresponding analog voltage, with each bit representing a weighted value, and
the output voltage is the sum of these weighted values.

Here's a more detailed explanation:

•Binary Input:

A 3-bit DAC accepts a 3-bit binary input, where each bit can be either 0 or 1.

•Weighted Values:

Each bit in the 3-bit input corresponds to a specific weighted value, based on powers of 2.

•Bit 2 (Most Significant Bit - MSB) = 4 (2^2)

•Bit 1 = 2 (2^1)
•Bit 0 (Least Significant Bit - LSB) = 1 (2^0)
•Analog Output:

The DAC converts the digital input into a corresponding analog voltage by summing the
weighted values of the '1' bits in the input.

•Example:

•If the input is 000 (binary), the output voltage is 0V.

•If the input is 001 (binary), the output voltage is 1V.
•If the input is 010 (binary), the output voltage is 2V.
•If the input is 011 (binary), the output voltage is 3V.
•If the input is 100 (binary), the output voltage is 4V.
•If the input is 101 (binary), the output voltage is 5V.
•If the input is 110 (binary), the output voltage is 6V.
•If the input is 111 (binary), the output voltage is 7V.

•Resolution:

•The resolution of a 3-bit DAC is 1/8th of the full-scale output voltage (1/2^3). In other
words, the DAC can represent 8 distinct voltage levels.
Weighted-Resistor DAC
 A weighted-resistor Digital-to-Analog Converter (DAC) uses a series of resistors with values that are
powers of 2 (1R, 2R, 4R, etc.) to convert a digital input into an analog output voltage.

Here's a more detailed explanation:

How it Works:

•Binary Representation:
•The digital input is a binary number (e.g., 1011). Each bit in this binary number corresponds to a specific
resistor in the DAC circuit.
•Resistor Values:
•The resistors are chosen so that their values are proportional to the binary weights (1, 2, 4, 8, etc.). For
example, if you have a 3-bit DAC, you'd have resistors with values of 1R, 2R, and 4R.
•Summing Amplifier:
•The DAC circuit typically uses an inverting summing amplifier. The currents flowing through the resistors,
which are proportional to the digital input bits, are summed at the inverting input of the amplifier.
•Output Voltage:
•The output voltage of the summing amplifier is then proportional to the sum of these currents, which in
turn is proportional to the digital input value.
R-2R Ladder DAC
 ADC / DAC specifications

ADC (Analog-to-Digital Converter) and DAC (Digital-to-Analog Converter)

specifications describe their performance, including resolution, accuracy, conversion time, and
linearity. Understanding these specifications is crucial for choosing the right converter for a
specific application.
ADC Specifications:

•Resolution: The number of bits used to represent the analog signal, determining the number of discrete levels the
converter can represent. A higher resolution means finer granularity and better accuracy.

•Accuracy: How closely the ADC output matches the actual analog input value. It's often expressed as a percentage
of full-scale output or in terms of effective digits (e.g., 12-bit accuracy).

•Conversion Time: The time it takes for the ADC to complete a single conversion, measured in microseconds or
nanoseconds. Faster conversion times are essential for applications requiring high throughput.

•Linearity: How closely the ADC's output steps match the ideal, evenly spaced steps of the input signal. Non-
linearity introduces errors in the converted signal.

•Input Voltage Range: The range of analog voltages the ADC can accurately convert.

•Dynamic Range: The ratio of the largest to smallest signal amplitude that an ADC can accurately convert, often
expressed in decibels (dB).

•Differential Non-Linearity (DNL): The difference between the actual and ideal step size of the ADC.

•Integral Non-Linearity (INL): The maximum deviation of the ADC's transfer function from a straight line.
DAC Specifications:

•Resolution: Similar to ADC, the number of bits used to represent the digital input, determining the number of
discrete levels the DAC can output.

•Accuracy: How closely the DAC output matches the ideal analog output value. It's often expressed as a
percentage of full-scale output or in terms of effective digits.

•Settling Time: The time it takes for the DAC output to settle to within a specified accuracy after a digital input
change.

•Linearity: How closely the DAC's output steps match the ideal, evenly spaced steps of the input signal.

•Output Voltage Range: The range of analog voltages the DAC can produce.
•
•Slew Rate: The maximum rate of change of the output voltage, important for fast-changing signals.

•Differential Non-Linearity (DNL): The difference between the actual and ideal step size of the DAC.

•Integral Non-Linearity (INL): The maximum deviation of the DAC's transfer function from a straight line.
 Concept of ADC
 An analog to digital converter (ADC), converts any analog signal into quantifiable data, which
makes it easier to process and store, as well as more accurate and reliable by minimizing errors.

 It basically converts physical variables which are analog in nature to digital signal for
processing with high conversion efficiency and requires less power.
 It can also be defined as a device that provides a digital output which is the representation of
the input voltage or current level.

Need for ADC

 Most of the environmental sensors such as temperature, light, pressure, andsound sensors
communicate with microcontrollers using analog signals.

 These analog sensors output values in a specific range based on what the sensors are sensing
and normally takes the form of sine waves and they can be defined by amplitude, frequency,
and phase.

 When these analog sensors are used with a microcontroller, it is not possible for the
microcontroller to directly understand these analog signals because microcontrollers only
understand digital signals which are formed by I's and O's.
 Hence it requires an intermediate device (ADC) that could convert the analog signals from
these sensors to digital signals so that the microcontroller can understand those signals from
the sensors.

Types of ADC
There are really five major types of ADCs in use today:

 Successive Approximation (SAR) ADC

 Delta-sigma (AZ) ADC

 Dual Slope ADC

 Pipelined ADC

 Flash ADC
Flash Type ADC

 Operates on the principle Of comparing analog input voltage with a set of reference voltages.

 To convert the analog input voltage into a digital signal of n-bit output, (2n — 1)
comparators are required.

 Provides fastest operation compared to all other ADCs.

 Flash ADCs are used in the applications which requires High-speed and large bandwidth.

 Also known as Parallel ADC.

2 bit Flash Type ADC
Flash Type ADC – Features

 Simplest in terms of operational theory

 Most efficient in terms of speed, very fast

 limited only in terms of comparator and gate propagation delays.

x Lower resolution

x Expensive

x Large Power Consumption

x For each additional output bit, the number of comparators is doubled

i.e. for 8 bits, 256 comparators needed.

 Successive Approximation Register ADC
 Most widely used and popular ADC method.

 The conversion time is maintained constant in successive approximation type

ADC, and is proportional to the number Of bits in the digital output.

 The basic principle Of this type Of AID converter is that the unknown analog
input voltage is approximated against an n-bit digital value by trying one bit at a
time, beginning with the MSB.
 It consists of a successive approximation register (SAR), DAC and comparator.

 The output of SAR is given to n-bit DAC.

 The equivalent analog output voltage of DAC, VD is applied to the non-inverting input of the
comparator.

 The second input to the comparator is the unknown analog input voltage VA.

 The output of the comparator is used to activate the successive approximation logic of SAR.

 When the start command is applied, the SAR sets the MSB to logic 1 and other bits are made
logic O, so that the trial code becomes 1000.
 An Example
4 bit Successive Approximation Register ADC
 When unknown voltage (VA) is applied, the circuit starts up from 0000.

 The output of SAR advances with each MSB. The output of SAR does not increase step—
by—step in BCD bus pattern, but individual bit becomes high—starting from MSB. Then by
comparison, the bit is fixed or removed. Thus, it sets first MSB (1000), then the second
MSB (0100) and so on.

 Every time, the output of SAR is converted to equivalent analog voltage(VD) by binary
ladder which is then compared with applied unknown voltage (VA).

 The comparison process goes on, in binary search style, until the binary equivalent Of
analog voltage is obtained.
 Capable of high speed and reliable

 Medium accuracy compared to other ADC types

 Good trade off between speed and cost

 Capable of output the binary number in serial format.

 High resolution

 No precision external components needed.

x Higher resolution successive approximation ADC's will be slower

x Speed limited to ~ 5Ms s.

 Voltage Regulators

1. Linear Regulator
2. Switching Regulator
Fixed Regulators
Variable Regulators
Linear Regulator as Current Source
IC 723 Voltage Regulator
IC 723 Low Voltage Regulator
IC 723 High Voltage Regulator
text