What is History: Its nature

and scope
Irfan Waheed Usmani
Outline
• What is History?
• The Evolution of History: Its main trajectories
• The Changing Conception of History in the light of Conceptions of that
Historians, Philosophers, Statesmen and Social Scientists
• How is History Constructed?
• Insights into the Nature of History
The questions that can be asked?
• What is History? Explain or elaborate it in the light of changing
conceptions of that history emerging from the insights of historians,
philosophers, statesmen and social scientists? Which definition of
history do you find more relevant/ appropriate?
• The Evolution of History: Its main trajectories
• How is history constructed?
• Insights into the Nature of History? Is it science, art or social science?
What is History?

• Etymological Meaning
• General Meaning
• Broad Connotation
• Modern Definition
What is History?:Etymological Meaning

Arabic Persian Greek German English

Wrakh—Tarikh ah-o- Roz Tosopetive Geschichte Historia
Mah-o-Roz Istoria
Edenai
Arabic
• Warkh: measurement, calculation and determination of time.
• WrakhꟷTarikh
• It is also used to show/indicate the duration of: Time/Period, or/Age
Persian
Mah-o- Roz The larger sense : Din Raat
Mah: Chand …. Rotation/day and night….
Roz: Din
Greek
Tosopetive (II)Istoria (III)Eidenai
Initial research and inquiry Inquiry, research, exploration, or Kisi waqea ki basrat aur Idrak…
information…. Waqea(event, development,
happening, occurrence).
Basrat: mental
perception/discernment
Idrak: perception; apprehension;
understanding; comprehension
English: History
Where is the word history derived
from?
Historia say mashtaqq hona hay: to
be derived (from) (Historia)…
English
The written record Record of what? Though which Difficult words: Time and Space
of what? approach it is
examined/studied..
Accounts; Of particular events Through credible Written record: Time: chronology
chronological of a nation; research and Chronological Space: geographical
account a society; and; an causation. Account: context; location;
institution…. Credible: environment
Causation:
Geschichte
 German: Geschichte

Maloomshuda ka Byan (II) Who Silsila-e tehquiq (III) Kisi waqeay ki

jis key badul waqiey ka waquhpazir hona
Ilm ho …
“the description of what the mode of inquiry The occurrence of
is known”. though which we can certain events
know/ one comes to know
about the events
 General Meaning

The
Mubarak Khurram
overall
Ali Qadir
Sense
General Meaning(I)

(I) (II) (III)

Record of human past History is the narration of Branch of Dealing with
past actuality. knowledge past
which deals personalities,
with past societies,
cultures, and
civilizations …
General Meaning(II): Mubarak Ali

(I) Mazi ka record (II) Tarikh Bayan karney (III) Aur jis andaz
kay liey mein isey likay jata
hay

The record of past A process that explains The way history is

transition from past to written:
present.
Khurram Qadir(I)
Mazi key Maanun mein (II) Tarikh Bayn karnay kay liey (III) Ek amal kay liey
History is used as an alternative for Transition from past to present..
past. The description of past Forms of transition:
Example: “ yeh baat ab Tarikh kay Irtiqa(evolution)
Hissa ban Chukey hayyay” . Definition: esa aml-e Mussalsal jis
mein tagaiyur paya jata ho Irtiqa
▫change; alteration; deterioration;
removal…
▫tagaiyur-o-tabaddul: changes;
alteration; revolutionary changes;
changes becoming vitiated or
corrupt…
Such a continuous process that
embodies variation/ change is
called Irtiqa.
Khurram Qadir(II): “Tarikh kay Lafz Mazi kay Irtiqa kay
mafhum mein”: “Two reference points that help to determine
Historical Facts”
Zaman (Time) Makan( Space)
The Changing and Concept of History (I):
Narrow Definitions
Napoleon Carlyle John Seeley Jones
“What is history, but a “History is the biography History is past politics and He considered history as a
fable agreed upon.” of personalities”. politics is present history. veritable mine of life
experiences.
The Changing and Concept of History (II):
Narrow Definitions
Henri Pirenna Froude: Voltaire
History is the account of Considered history to be “Tarikh Jaraim aur
the social life/ activities laws of right and wrong. hamaqataun ka muraqqa
and achievements of he”..
human beings. History is an album of
human follies and crimes.
A book of pictures, or
drawings, or of specimens
of fine penmanship;
A portfolio
A scrapbook
An album
Broad Connotation

John Huizinga Donald G. Gawronski E.H.Carr Colling Wood

History is an intellectual History is the History is an unending History is the re-
activity, but one which is interpretative study of the dialogue between Past enactment of Past
very much guided in fact recorded facts of bygone and Present. thought in historian’s
and reality. human beings and mind.
societies, the purpose of
which study is to develop
an understanding of
human actions, not only
in the past but for the
present as well.
By gone: belonging or
happening in a
John Huizinga Donald Gawronski E.H.Carr R.G. Collingwood.
Intellectual activity: Interpretative study: What is meant by an Re-enactment: if you re-
Guided by what? Based on what? unending dialogue? enact an event , you try to
Purpose: make it happen again in
exactly the same way that
it happened the first time.
Of which?
Where does it take place?
Modern Definitions
Donald G. E.Sreedhran Aurther Mervick Marc Bloch Robert C.Williams
Gawronski
History is the History is the History is account of History is the History aspires to
humanistic, systematic account past as narrated by science of men in construct and tell
interpretative study of the origin and historians. time. true stories about
of past society, the development of the discovered past.
purpose of which is humankind.
to gain insights into
present with the
fervent hope of
perhaps influencing
more favourable
future course of
human race.
Donald V. E.Sreedhran Aurther Mervick Marc Bloch Robert C.Williams
Gawronski
The nature of Nature: systematic His definition boils Nature of history: what is mean by
history: humanistic account down to placing scientific aspire? To have a
interpretative study Account of what: emphasis on Subject matter/ strong want or hope
Its main focus: past origin and narration/ focus: to do or have
Its purpose: to development of narratives of man( humans; What history aspires
utilize it for both humankind. historians.. human society to do? True stories
present and future.. Focus: in time About what ? The
(particular period; discovered past
epoch or age)… What does he lay so
much emphasis on
“discovered past”?
Todays Work (19-04-2021)
• Narrow definitions: 5; 2 narraow but not so narrow
• Broad definitions: 4
• Modern Definitions : 5
• 5+2+4+5=16…
The Evolution of History: Its main
trajectories
• The Early Period
• The Greek Contributions
• The Evolution of History in the Middle Ages
• The Muslim Interlude: Historiography in the Muslim Period
• The Development of Historiography in the West in the Modern Era
• Historiography in the Twentieth Century
The Early Period(I)

• The phase of oral history, Tahir Kamran, p.144.

• How old are oral and written histories? S.M.Jaffer
• How was the oral narrative preserved? Though the continuous repetition of
events and occurrences..
• How History continued to survive? Through mythological stories and
legends: narrative characteristic; embellished by heroic dees and and
adventures of warriors and epics, Tahir Kamran, p.144.
• Their subject matter/ themes/ main focus:
•.
• What kind of story: Iliad and Odyssey, Jim Cullen, p.15.
The Early Period (II): From Jim Cullen
• In the beginning it was about stories….: Jim Cullen, Chapter 2: what is
story with History, pp.14—15
• “In the beginning … ..(though archeologists…through other means), p.
14
The Early Period (III): The contribution of
Jews, p.14—15, Jim Cullen…
• The contribution of Jews, p.14—15, Jim Cullen…
The Main Objection that were raised
to/against the History of the early period..
• Tahir Kamran: p.144.
The Greek Contributions(I)

• Tahir Kamran: p.145, the first paragraph…

• A brief commentary on Greek style of Historiography: Jim Cullen,
• Jim Cullen: the first paragraph p.15.
Tahir Kamran: p.144, the last paragraph….
A brief commentary on Greek style of
Historiography: Jim Cullen(p.16 the first paragraph)
• They recorded stories: its underlying motive..
• The specific examples: Iliad and Odyssey
• From which period?/ When we begin to see some recognizable
aspects of written history?
• What are these recognizable aspects: in particular efforts to confirm
and report facts…of a story, p.15.
• The role of Thucydides in consolidation and extension of the
techniques?
• His major work: its characteristic features, p.15.
The overall / dominant/ prevailing Trend of
Historiography over one thousand years.
• The second paragraph Jim Cullen, p.15
• 5 BCE… 1500 AD
The Evolution of History in the Roman
Period
• Tahir Kamran, p.145: the first paragraph
The overall / dominant/ prevailing Trend of
Historiography over one thousand years.
• Jim Cullen, p.15.
The Muslim Interlude: Historiography in the Muslim Period(I)

• The Historiography reached its zenith in Muslim Period.

• Initially the traditions of Oral History were dominant at the time of
advent of Islam.
• But over the period of time the tradition of Historiography began to
emerge.
The Facilitating Factors/Two Key
developments(I)
• First, the tradition of compilation of Hadith Literature.
• Second, the works on the biography of the Prophet(PBUH). (work on
Seerat-e nawbi(SM))
• The Muslim had developed three main methods for the compilation
of Hadith
(I)Al-Jarah-wo-Tadeel
• (II)Isma-ul-Rijal
• (III)Riwayat-wo- Dirayat
(I)Al-Jarah-wo-Tadeel
• The Muslim historiographers adopted/followed Al-Jarah-wo-Tadil to
authenticate the credibility of sources so as to ensure the authenticity
of history.
(II):Asma al-Rijal
• the science of CLASSIFICATION OF HADITH which
was used by the early compilers of Hadith so that the
statements of the Prophet are free of corruption.
Immediately the Prophet died many people with false
claims came up with statements credited to the
Prophet. In order to ascertain the genuine reports about
the Prophet one major yardstick used was the 
Asmā’Rijāl.
• Biographies of narrators…
(II):Asma al-Rijal(II)
• Mustalah al-Hadith is strongly associated with Rijal al-Hadith (the study of the
reporters of hadith). In scrutinising the reporters of a hadith, authenticating or
disparaging remarks made by recognised experts, from amongst the Successors and
those after them, were found to be of great help. Examples of such remarks, in
descending order of authentication, are:
• "Imam (leader), Hafiz (preserver)."
• "Reliable, trustworthy."
• "Makes mistakes."
• "Weak."
• "Abandoned (by the traditionists)."
• "Liar, used to fabricate ahadith."5
(III)Riwayat-wo- Dirayat

• a critical examination of hadith: As a result of the efforts

made by Muslim scholars in this regard, a new branch was
created in the science of hadith; it came to be called “dirayat
al-hadith7”.
• The Nihayat al-dirayah defines dirayat al-hadith in these
words: “It is a science which investigates the isnad, contents,
subject and the mode of transmission of ahadith, so that
acceptable traditions can be separated from unacceptable
ones.”
First, the tradition of compilation of Hadith Literature

• The Muslim had developed three main methods for the compilation
of Hadith
1. (I)Al-Jarah-wo-Tadeel
• (II)Isma-ul-Rjal
• (III)Riwayat-wo- Dariat
Second, the works on the biography of the
Prophet(PBUH).
• The tradition of writing Seerat-tun-Nabi(SM) reinforced Muslim
historiography.
• After Ibn-Ishaque there began the tradition of writing historical events
chronologically.
The Prominent Historians among Muslims
• Al-Tabri
• Al-Baladari
• Al-Masudi
• Ibn-e-Kathir
• Ibn Khaldun
The Profound Impact of the Muslim
Historiography
• Their profound influence on the other regions and civilizations.
• The specific example: Ibn Khaldun’s historical philosophy its far-
reaching impact….
• The influence of the Muslim Historiography in India :
• The prominent Muslim historians in India who became the carriers of
influences of Muslim historiography in India: their names:
• Al-Beruni; Minhaj Siraj; Zia-ud-Din Barni, and Abul Fazal: p.145.
What we looked at in the portion on Muslim
Historiography?
• The contributions of Muslims towards the development of traditions of
Historiography… (I) before the advent of Islam tradirion of oral history
prevailed, and;(II) the tradition of Historiography began to emerge.
• Two factors: First, the tradition of compilation of Hadith Literature.
Second, the works on the biography of the Prophet(PBUH)
• Methods used for the authentication of Ahadith… their impact/role in
development of Muslim historiography.
• Prominent historians among Muslims
• Profound impact of Muslim historiography
The Development of Historiography in the West in the Modern
Era(The Eighteenth Century): Reading third paragraph p. 145..
• The revival of tradition of writing history in the modern era… (from the
Eighteenth century onward)…
• The emergence of new trends of comprehension of history in reaction to/in
response to Cartesianism( its further explanation in 8 slides) of Descartes(1596
—1650).
• Vico was the most important figure in this regard, his work provided impetus to
the subsequent historians.
• Later a number of historians gave new impetus to historiography:
Your reading lists the names of 7 historians/political thinkers...
(I) Gibbon;(II) Setland;(III) Tain/Taine; (IV) Niebuhr;(V) Herder;(VI) Voltaire, and;
(VII) Montesquieu
 Some Key Ideas understanding of
which is helpful for the Discussion ?

Enlightenment
Cartesianism: Humanism:
:
Cartesianism(I)
• What is Cartesianism? Rene Descartes(1596—1650)
▫It was form of rationalism…
▫the emphasis on the use of reason to develop a natural science.
• The Overall Concept/Conception
• ▫ Being is wholly separated from corporeal body…
• The other exponents : Nicholas Millibrand….
• A simpler explanation of the Concept.
Descartes’s emphasis on the faculty of deductive reasoning.
• The main focus of Descartes
A simpler explanation of the Concept
• Mind—body dualism
• Cartesian dualism: it divides the world into Mind (mental stuff) and
Matter(bodies)…
• It is more statement of detachment..
• Thus, Cartesianism is opposed to Aristotlism and Empiricism:
• They emphasized sensory experience as a source of all knowledge of the
world..
• sensory experience: knowledge is filtered though senses…
• Reason: For Descartes, the faculty of deductive reason is supplied by God
therefore can be trusted because God would not deceive use…
Deductive Reasoning
• Deductive reasoning, or deduction, starts out with a general statement, or hypothesis, and examines the
possibilities to reach a specific, logical conclusion, according to California State University. The scientific method
uses deduction to test hypotheses and theories.
• "In deductive inference, we hold a theory and based on it we make a prediction of its consequences. That is, we
predict what the observations should be if the theory were correct. We go from the general — the theory — to
the specific — the observations," said Dr. Sylvia Wassertheil-Smoller, a researcher and professor emerita at
Albert Einstein College of Medicine.
• Deductive reasoning usually follows steps. First, there is a premise, then a second premise, and finally an
inference.
• A common form of deductive reasoning is the syllogism, in which two statements — a major premise and a
minor premise — reach a logical conclusion. For example, the premise "Every A is B" could be followed by
another premise, "This C is A." Those statements would lead to the conclusion "This C is B." Syllogisms are
considered a good way to test deductive reasoning to make sure the argument is valid.
• For example, "All men are mortal. Harold is a man. Therefore, Harold is mortal."
• For deductive reasoning to be sound, the hypothesis must be correct. It is assumed that the premises, "All men
are mortal" and "Harold is a man" are true. Therefore, the conclusion is logical and true. In deductive reasoning,
if something is true of a class of things in general, it is also true for all members of that class. 
• According to Califor
Deductive reasoning…
• According to California State University, deductive inference
conclusions are certain provided the premises are true. It's
possible to come to a logical conclusion even if the
generalization is not true. If the generalization is wrong, the
conclusion may be logical, but it may also be untrue. For
example, the argument, "All bald men are grandfathers.
Harold is bald. Therefore, Harold is a grandfather," is valid
logically but it is untrue because the original statement is
false.
Inductive Reasoning
• Inductive reasoning is the opposite of deductive reasoning. Inductive
reasoning makes broad generalizations from specific observations.
Basically, there is data, then conclusions are drawn from the data. This
is called inductive logic, according to Utah State University. 
• "In inductive inference, we go from the specific to the general. We
make many observations, discern a pattern, make a generalization, and
infer an explanation or a theory,"
• Wassertheil-Smoller told Live Science. "In science, there is a constant
interplay between inductive inference (based on observations) and
deductive inference (based on theory), until we get closer and closer to
the 'truth,' which we can only approach but not ascertain with
complete certainty." 
Example
• An example of inductive logic is, "The coin I pulled from the bag
is a penny. That coin is a penny. A third coin from the bag is a
penny. Therefore, all the coins in the bag are pennies."
• Even if all of the premises are true in a statement, inductive
reasoning allows for the conclusion to be false. Here's an
example: "Harold is a grandfather. Harold is bald. Therefore, all
grandfathers are bald." The conclusion does not follow logically
from the statements.
Their Application in Research
• Inductive reasoning has its place in the scientific method.
Scientists use it to form hypotheses and theories.
• Deductive reasoning allows them to apply the theories to
specific situations.
What is Deductive reasoning

• What is Deductive reasoning

• Difference between Inductive and Deductive
• Inductive: movement of knowledge from particular to general; example..
(I) Crow a is black;(II) Crow B is black. Inductive reasoning leads to the
conclusion all crows are black… (theory formation)
• Deductive reasoning movement of knowledge from general to particular:
All crows are black; hence Crow A is black and Crow B is black. (theory
testing)
• Context: 1530—1648:
• I think therefore I am….
The overall Impact: Reading, p.145
• Now history no longer remained the expression of Divine Will rather it
became the product of the force of human will/determination.
• The Development of Historiography in the West in the Modern Era
(Jim Cullen)
• The-other-worldliness
• Now the focus shifted toward this-worldliness..
The Development of Historiography in the West in the Modern Era:
reading Tahir Kamran: 145…

• The nineteenth century proved to be the most fertile era/ period as

far as historiography was concerned.
From the other reading: “What is story with
History?”p.15.
• The intellectual currents surrounding the Enlightenment
• How and in what ways did they influence History?
• What they gave primacy to? What they emphasized?(accuracy and
objectivity)..
• The representative work of that period or era…Edward Gibbon’s
work….,
• Emphasis on dispassionate analysis.., p.15.
The Development of Historiography in the West
in the Modern Era: what is story with history
• (II):The contribution of Vico in the Period:Scienza Nova (1725).
• What did he lay stress on/what did he emphasize?
• “Vico emphasized that mere facts alone could never fully capture the
truth of the past, that imaginative reconstruction and a desire to
understand people on their own terms must also be the part of the
equation”.
• (III): The influence of Humanism on History
• What kind of debate it gave rise to/ generate/ spark off?
• The debate over… in our time”,p.16.
Summing UP: The Development of Historiography in the West in
the Modern Era: what is story with history( From Jim Cullen’s
reading)
(I) The Intellectual Currents (II) The Contribution of Vico (III) The Influence of Humanism on
surrounding Enlightenment History
Enlightenment and its Impact
• Movement: Eighteenth century
• Period (1690—1789)
• After Scientific Revolution(1443—1687)…
Nicholas Copernicus; Johanas Kepler; Tyco Brahe; Galileo Gallie,and; Isac
Newton …
• Geo-centric theory:
• Hello-centric:
• How did Kant define Enlightenment? : Dare to know…
• The profound impact of Enlightenment: Now the focus shifted toward this-
worldliness..
The Concept of Noble Savage:(Tahir
Kamran)
•Rousseau’s unspoiled child of nature, a literally noble savage free from
the vices and corruption associated with advanced industrial society.
•The modern myth of the noble savage is most attributed to the 18th-
century Enlightenment philosopher Jean Jacques Rousseau. He
believed the original “man” was free from sin, appetite or the
concept of right and wrong, and that those deemed “savages” were
not brutal but noble.
The reaction against the Concepts: Tahir
Kamran:
• The historians like Anne Robert Jacques Turgot( 1727—1781) and
Condorcet (1743—1794)while reacting against the notions/ concepts
of “Nobel Savage” and “Back to the Nature” made human wisdom
and intellect the standard to judge the history and rejected miracle
and metaphysical intervention.
Humanism
• Context: from the other-worldliness to this worldliness..
• The rise of moral humanist historiography
The Overarching Influences /The two key
factors
Humanism Facts of archeology
Humanism: Renaissance(14—15 centuries) was (developments in Italy…) focus on description of
accompanied by/gave rise to Humanism… archeological facts/finding… (empirical evidence)…
The impact of Humanism on Italian Historiography… The detailed explanation/illustration of the
the paradigmatic shift in the focus of history statements…impact: the development of
The history before Renaissance methodology..
(didactic/religious)Reason: the other-worldiness…
Didactic history was replaced by moral humanist
history; the emergence of new definitions or
conceptions of History
(Henry Pirenna) History is narrative of the acts/deeds
of social life of humans.
History is description of social life of humans…
The Evolution of History: History in the Nineteenth
century: Tahir Kamran’s Reading: p. 145—146.
Ranke Hegel Karl Charles Darwin Empiricism The
Marx(d.1869) contributions of
What did he The role of What Marx did? Increasing/growi Turgev
emphasize? Hegel’s idealist ng importance And Condorcet
“who insisted on idealistic/idealist of science…
giving distinct/ philosophy in
separate status the evolution of
to history as a History…
discipline”,
p.145.
As it happened This notion of What was How did the
in the past ( His idealism distinguishing reaction against
main reached its aspect of Karl Rousseau’s ideas
emphasis).. zenith in Hegel’s Marx? of “Nobel
“Dialectical savage” and
Theory. 145— “Back to the
146. nature …
Archival history: Overarching
Facts and influence of
documents Marx: political
The Influence of Idealist Tradition: Influence
of Hegel
• What does the Reading say about Hegel?
• The concept of idealism/ idealist philosophy played a key role in the
evolution of the discipline of history.
• It reached its high point/ water-mark in Hegel’s concept of Dialectics
• Which embraces that: “the historical process proceeds through the
clash between opposite ideas(dialectics)
OR
Progression though contradiction…
Hegel: Further Explanation
The concept of dialectics Main emphasis How has he applied it to History?

Progression through contradiction.. ”consciousness/ idea precedes How has he applied it to History?
existence”. What Marx did?
The role of Different Schools of thought in
the evolution of History in the Twentieth
century
• (I)Marxist
• (II)Annals
• (III)Frankfurt
• (IV) Subaltern
(II)Marxist: Tahir Kamran
• In the nineteenth century one can describe Marx as a thinker who
tried to trace the intellectual threads of his thought in history, as he
described history as “narrative/account of class struggle”.
• It was the Marxist thought which got/enjoyed greatest reception in
the modern times and profoundly influenced a large part of the
globe.
• Soviet Union and China practically implemented Marxist ideologies.
Apart from these countries it triggered / brought about fundamental
changes in the socio-economic development of a number of
countries.
• Particularly in the developing countries, the Marxist ideas provided
conceptual and ideological rationale for the resistance movements of
the twentieth century, which during the course of their anti-colonial
struggle, raised their voices for the wretched of the earth,crushed
under the yoke of colonialism.
The Profound Influence of Marxist Thought
on the other intellectual traditions
• Frankfurt School
• The Annals School of History
• The Subaltern Studies
(II)Annals School(I): Brief Introduction

• Annales school, School of history. Established by Lucien Febvre (1878–1956)

and Marc Bloch (1886–1944), its roots were in the journal Annales: économies,
sociétés, civilisations,
• Febvre’s reconstituted version of a journal he had earlier formed with Marc
Bloch.
• Under Fernand Braudel’s direction the Annales school promoted a new form of history,
replacing the study of leaders with the lives of ordinary people and replacing
examination of politics, diplomacy, and wars with inquiries into climate, demography,
agriculture, commerce, technology, transportation, and communication, as well as
social groups and mentalities.
• While aiming at a “total history,” it also yielded dazzling microstudies of villages and
regions. Its international influence on historiography has been enormous.
Annals School
Main Emphasis Exponents Seminal Works

They raised the slogan of total (I)

history

Long Durée: Concept of (II) A Geographical Introduction to

Periodization History. in collaboration with
Lionel Bataillon, London 1925;

(III)
 The Seminal Works

Marc Bloch (1886—19) Lucien Febvre (1878—1956) Fernand Braudel (1902—1985)

(1939–40; Feudal Society, 1961)  A Geographical Introduction to Mediterranean and Mediterranean
History. in collaboration with Lionel in the Age of Philip II(1949)
Bataillon, London 1925 (

The Problem of Unbelief in the

Sixteenth Century: The Religion of 
Rabelais. trans. Beatrice Gottlieb.
Harvard University Press:
Cambridge, Mass.; London, 1982.
 • Frankfurt School, group of researchers
associated with the Institute for Social
Research in Frankfurt am Main, Germany,
(III):Frankfur who applied Marxism to a radical
interdisciplinary social theory.

t School(I): • The Institute for Social Research (Institut

für Sozialforschung) was founded by Carl
Grünberg in 1923 as an adjunct of the
Brief University of Frankfurt; it was the first
Marxist-oriented research centre affiliated

History+Main
with a major German university.
• Max Horkheimer took over as director in

Exponents
1930 and recruited many talented
theorists, including T.W. Adorno, Erich
Fromm, Herbert Marcuse, and Walter
Benjamin.
Frankfurt School: Main contribution

• The members of the Frankfurt School tried to develop a theory of society that was
based on Marxism and Hegelian philosophy, but which also utilized the insights of
psychoanalysis, sociology, existential philosophy, and other disciplines.
• They used basic Marxist concepts to analyze the social relations within capitalist
economic systems.
• This approach, which became known as “critical theory,” yielded influential critiques of
large corporations and monopolies, the role of technology, the industrialization of
culture, and the decline of the individual within capitalist society. Fascism and
authoritarianism were also prominent subjects of study.
• Much of this research was published in the institute’s journal, Zeitschrift für
Sozialforschung (1932–41; “Journal for Social Research”).
The Era of Nazi’s Dictatorship
Most of the institute’s scholars were forced to leave
Germany after Adolf Hitler’s accession to power (1933),
and many found refuge in the United States.

1949

1933

The Institute for Social Research thus became affiliated

with Columbia University until 1949, when it returned
to Frankfurt.
The Intellectual
•In the 1950s the critical theorists of the Frankfurt School diverged
in several intellectual directions.

Directions in •Most of them disavowed orthodox Marxism, though they remained

deeply critical of capitalism.

which the School • Marcuse’s critique of what he perceived as capitalism’s increasing

control of all aspects of social life enjoyed unexpected influence in
the 1960s among the younger generation. 
Moved in /took in •Jürgen Habermas emerged as the most prominent member of the

the 1950’s and Frankfurt School in the postwar decades, however. He tried to open
critical theory to developments in analytic philosophy and linguistic
analysis, structuralism, and hermeneutics. 

1960’s
 •Subaltern Studies emerged around 1982 as a series of
journal articles published by Oxford University Press in
India. 
•A group of Indian scholars trained in the west wanted to
(IV): reclaim their history. 

Subaltern: •Its main goal was to retake history for the underclasses, for
the voices that had not been heard previous.  Scholars of the
Main subaltern hoped to break away from histories of the elites
and the Eurocentric bias of current imperial history. 
Emphasis(I) •In the main, the wrote against the "Cambridge School“,
which seemed to uphold the colonial legacy—i.e. it was
elite-centered.
•Instead, they focused on subaltern in terms of class, caste,
gender, race, language and culture. 
• They espoused the idea that there may have been political
dominance, but that this was not hegemonic.   
(IV): Subaltern: Main Emphasis(I)
The Subaltern historians wanted was to reclaim their history, to give voice to the
subjected peoples. 
Any other history merely reconstructs imperialist hegemony and does not give voice
to the people—those who resisted, those who supported, those who experienced
colonial incursion. 
• According to the Subaltern Studies group, this history is designed to be a
"contribution made by people on their own, that it, independently of the élite"
(quoted in Young 160). 
•They did this by establishing a journal out of Oxford, Delhi and Australia and called
it Subaltern Studies to write a history against the grain and restore history to the
subordinated. 
•In other words, to give the common people back their agency. [role/voice/ power]…
Subaltern: Main Emphasis(II)
• In other words, proponents of subaltern studies suggest that we need to
find alternate sources to locate the voice of the subaltern historically. 
• What do we mean by alternate sources: the writings of rebels; diaries;
judicial records; police records; memoirs; correspondence; poetry and
literature; the other sources that shed light on their social economic
and political aspects of life.
• Elite records, like those at the home office or foreign office could still be
used, but you had to read them with a different pair of lenses. 
• So even though we might be subject to using these same sources, we
can read them "against the grain" –this phrase comes from Walter
Benjamin's theoretical work.
(III): Major Exponents
Ranajit Guha Gayatri Chakravorty Gayatri Chakravorty Partha Chatterjee
Spivak. Spivak.(II)

The primary She draws on She was highly

leader was Ranajit several theoretical critical of current
Guha who had positions in her histories of India
written works on analysis of Indian that were told
peasant uprisings history: from the vantage
in India. deconstruction, point of the
marxism, colonizers and
feminism. presented a story
of the colony via
the British
administrators
(Young, 159).
Their Cumulative Impact
Brief Insights into development of History in
India (I)
The Pioneers of Their impact on the The influence of How does Tahir Tahir Kamran
History in India next generation of Aligarh on Muslim Kamran sum up the laments about the
Historians Historian development of poor state of the
Indian field in Pakistan
Historiography?
6 prominent 4 major historians How I.H.Quershi and ▫Influence of two
historians Sheikh Abdul Rashid traditions
laid the foundation Marxist and
of Historiography in Nationalist
Pakistan? ▫The overarching
influence of the
tradition on
subaltern School
▫A Brief introduction
of Subaltern School
of History
The Pioneers of History in India:The tradition gained
increasing/ great maturity in the twentieth century

The historians who pioneered modern historiography They trained/ a new generation/ breed of historians
in India
Your reading mentions the names of 6 historians.. The names of 4 distinguished historians
The two facilitating factors in the
development of Indian Historiography
• One can describe/ construe the Indian historiography(particularly in
the twentieth century) as synthesis/blend of nationalist and Marxist
thoughts.
The influence of Aligarh on Muslim
Historians(I)
• The historians like I.H.Qureshi and Sheikh Abdul Rasheed who laid the
foundations of Pakistani historiography were profoundly influenced by
Aligarh. (See the next slide)….
Pakistani Historiography
Role of ideological Role of Muslim separatism Eulogizing Muslim
factors behind personalities in past heritage
Pakistan movement Pakistan movement
Tahir Kamran laments about the poor state of
the field [field of history] in Pakistan
• We find that the tradition of historiography could not make any
considerable headway in Pakistan.[History is written in statist frames].
• We could not create such institutions that could impart requisite
training to historians.
• Therefore, the Pakistani historians mostly rely on works authored by
foreign writers while teaching history of Pakistan.
• One rarely finds the perspectives of Pakistani historians gain
acceptance/ recognition/ visibility at international level.
• We rarely find Pakistani historians presenting their perspective at
international level.p.146.
The Development of History in the Nineteenth and
Twentieth Century: From Jim Cullen’s Reading
• Jim Cullen’s reading: What kind of developments occurred in History
in the Second Half of the Nineteenth Century? pp.16—17
• What happened to History in the Nineteenth century? : History became
recognizably modern in the nineteenth century.
• What was History prior to that? What was the previous state of the
field? : Until then, it had been largely a genteel craft.
• Difficult word: Genteel craft
• The kind of people associated with field: practiced by gentle men of
liessure, people with resources to travel, reflect, and acquire source
material on their own.
• The rise of the professional historians: two facilitating factors
• What is meant by professional historians?
Genteel Craft
(of people and their way of life) (II) Having or typical of a high (III) Calm and gentle
Quite and polite, often an social class.
exaggerated way
Or pretending to be from, a high
social craft.
The Two Facilitating Factors
The Development of Modern University System The falling of History under the sway of the new
social sciences
Graduate Schools A series of major contributions to human knowledge…
The awarding of doctorates
And a system of peer-reviewed research..
A Series of Major Contribution to human
knowledge
Charles Darwin Technological How the older fields The development of
Origin of Species innovation in like philosophy and new conception of
transportation and history responded knowledge
communications.. to the challenges?
1859: Accelerated the How reoriented
growing prestige of themselves? They
science in the reoriented around
western intellectual the language of
life. measurement,
Its effects on evidence and
emerging field like hypothesis….
sociology and ( tentative answer
psychology. They to a research
explicitly patterned question
themselves on
scientific practices
and logic.
The development of new conception of knowledge

• What was the older conception of knowledge that became

redundant/ got laid off / went out of fashion?
• How knowledge and insight came to be understood? To be tightly
framed and empirical. ( mushaidiati taur par/say)
• Now the knowledge came to be expressed in new forms..
Now the knowledge came to be expressed in new forms..

The Case Studies Monographs Difficult words:

The case study replaced panoramic Now the Academic history came to Monograph: a long article or a
canvass. be written in form of monographs.. short book on a particular subject.
The profound effects of the Panoramic canvass: with a view of
developments on the Academic wide area of land ( of a description,
history: previous form( typically a study or set of pictures), presenting
sweeping narrative of truth)… all different aspects of a particular
New conception: but a series of subject.
discrete bricks that would someday Staples: [only before a noun] a
constitute a tower of truth)… basic, large or important part of
something…
Discrete have a clear independent
shape; separate..
What Germany’s distinction
The Changing Conception of History
• The Changing Conception of History in the light of Conceptions of that
Historians, Philosophers, Statesmen and Social Scientists
had/developed of History.
How is History Constructed?
Insights into the Nature of History (I)

• What does History deal with?

• The Nature of History as Reconstruction
• Is History Science, Art, and Social Science …
The Nature of History What does History deal with?(I)

• The Integrated Study of Human Affairs

• The Chronological Dimensions
The Integrated Study of Human Affairs
The Chronological Dimensions