Essentials of Human Anatomy & Physiology

Seventh Edition
Elaine N. Marieb

Chapter 11
The Cardiovascular
System

Copyright © 2003 Pearson Education, Inc. publishing as Benjamin Cummings

 The Cardiovascular System

 A closed system of the heart and blood

vessels
 The heart pumps blood
 Blood vessels allow blood to circulate to all
parts of the body
 The function of the cardiovascular
system is to deliver oxygen and
nutrients and to remove carbon dioxide
and other waste products
Copyright © 2003 Pearson Education, Inc. publishing as Benjamin Cummings Slide 11.1
 The Heart

 Location
 Thorax between the lungs
 Pointed apex directed toward left hip
 About the size of your fist
 Less than 1 lb.

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The Heart

Figure 11.1

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 The Heart: Coverings

 Pericardium – a double serous

membrane
 Visceral pericardium
 Next to heart
 Parietal pericardium
 Outside layer
 Serous fluid fills the space between the
layers of pericardium
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 The Heart: Heart Wall
 Three layers
 Epicardium
 Outside layer
 This layer is the parietal pericardium
 Connective tissue layer
 Myocardium
 Middle layer
 Mostly cardiac muscle
 Endocardium
 Inner layer
 Endothelium
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 External Heart Anatomy

Copyright © 2003 Pearson Education, Inc. publishing as Benjamin Cummings Figure 11.2a Slide 11.5
 The Heart: Chambers
 Right and left side act as separate pumps
 Four chambers
 Atria
 Receiving chambers
 Right atrium
 Left atrium
 Ventricles
 Discharging chambers
 Right ventricle
 Left ventricle
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Blood Circulation

Figure 11.3
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 The Heart: Valves
 Allow blood to flow in only one direction
 Four valves
 Atrioventricular valves – between atria and
ventricles
 Bicuspid valve (left)
 Tricuspid valve (right)
 Semilunar valves between ventricle and
artery
 Pulmonary semilunar valve
 Aortic semilunar valve
Copyright © 2003 Pearson Education, Inc. publishing as Benjamin Cummings Slide 11.8
 The Heart: Valves

 Valves open as blood is pumped

through
 Held in place by chordae tendineae
(“heart strings”)
 Close to prevent backflow

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 Operation of Heart Valves

Figure 11.4
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 Valve Pathology
• Incompetent valve = backflow and repump
• Stenosis = stiff= heart workload increased
• May be replaced
• Lup Dub Heart Sound
The Heart: Associated Great Vessels
 Aorta
 Leaves left ventricle
 Pulmonary arteries
 Leave right ventricle
 Vena cava
 Enters right atrium
 Pulmonary veins (four)
 Enter left atrium
Copyright © 2003 Pearson Education, Inc. publishing as Benjamin Cummings Slide 11.11
 Coronary Circulation

 Blood in the heart chambers does not

nourish the myocardium
 The heart has its own nourishing
circulatory system
 Coronary arteries
 Cardiac veins
 Blood empties into the right atrium via the
coronary sinus
Copyright © 2003 Pearson Education, Inc. publishing as Benjamin Cummings Slide 11.12
 Cardiac Pathology
• Rapid heart beat
• = Inadequate blood
• = Angina Pectoris
 The Heart: Conduction System

 Intrinsic conduction system

(nodal system)
 Heart muscle cells contract, without nerve
impulses, in a regular, continuous way

Copyright © 2003 Pearson Education, Inc. publishing as Benjamin Cummings Slide 11.13a
 The Heart: Conduction System

 Special tissue sets the pace

 Sinoatrial node (right atrium)
 Pacemaker
 Atrioventricular node (junction of r&l atria
and ventricles)
 Atrioventricular bundle (Bundle of His)
 Bundle branches (right and left)
 Purkinje fibers Slide 11.13b
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Heart Contractions

Figure 11.5

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Electrocardiograms (EKG/ECG)

• Three formations
– P wave: impulse across atria
– QRS complex: spread of impulse down septum,
around ventricles in Purkinje fibers
– T wave: end of electrical activity in ventricles
An electrocardiogram tracing showing the three normally recognizable deflection
waves- P, QRS, and T.
Electrocardiograms (EKG/ECG)
(cont.)

Figure 8.15B, C
 Pathology of the Heart
• Damage to AV node = release of ventricles
from control = slower heart beat
• Slower heart beat can lead to fibrillation
• Fibrillation = lack of blood flow to the heart
• Tachycardia = more than 100 beats/min
• Bradychardia = less than 60 beats/min
 The Heart: Cardiac Cycle

 Atria contract simultaneously

 Atria relax, then ventricles contract
 Systole = contraction
 Diastole = relaxation

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 Filling of Heart Chambers –
the Cardiac Cycle

Figure 11.6

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 The Heart: Cardiac Output

 Cardiac output (CO)

 Amount of blood pumped by each side of
the heart in one minute
 CO = (heart rate [HR]) x (stroke volume
[SV])
 Stroke volume
 Volume of blood pumped by each ventricle
in one contraction
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 Cardiac output, cont.
• CO = HR x SV
• 5250 ml/min = 75 beats/min x 70 mls/beat
• Norm = 5000 ml/min
• Entire blood supply passes through body
once per minute.
• CO varies with demands of the body.
 Cardiac Output Regulation

Figure 11.7

Copyright © 2003 Pearson Education, Inc. publishing as Benjamin Cummings Slide 11.19
 The Heart: Regulation of Heart
Rate
 Stroke volume usually remains relatively
constant
 Starling’s law of the heart – the more that
the cardiac muscle is stretched, the
stronger the contraction
 Changing heart rate is the most
common way to change cardiac output

Copyright © 2003 Pearson Education, Inc. publishing as Benjamin Cummings Slide 11.20
 Regulation of Heart Rate
 Increased heart rate
 Sympathetic nervous system
 Crisis
 Low blood pressure
 Hormones
 Epinephrine
 Thyroxine
 Exercise
 Decreased blood volume
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 The Heart: Regulation of Heart
Rate

 Decreased heart rate

 Parasympathetic nervous system
 High blood pressure or blood volume
 Dereased venous return
 In Congestive Heart Failure the heart is
worn out and pumps weakly. Digitalis
works to provide a slow, steady, but
stronger beat.
Copyright © 2003 Pearson Education, Inc. publishing as Benjamin Cummings Slide 11.22
 Congestive Heart Failure (CHF)
• Decline in pumping efficiency of heart
• Inadequate circulation
• Progressive, also coronary atherosclerosis, high
blood pressure and history of multiple Myocardial
Infarctions
• Left side fails = pulmonary congestion and
suffocation
• Right side fails = peripheral congestion and edema
 Blood Vessels: The Vascular
System

 Taking blood to the tissues and back

 Arteries
 Arterioles
 Capillaries
 Venules
 Veins

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The Vascular System

Figure 11.8b

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 Blood Vessels: Anatomy
 Three layers (tunics)
 Tunic intima
 Endothelium
 Tunic media
 Smooth muscle
 Controlled by sympathetic nervous
system
 Tunic externa
 Mostly fibrous connective tissue
Copyright © 2003 Pearson Education, Inc. publishing as Benjamin Cummings Slide 11.25
 Differences Between Blood Vessel
Types
 Walls of arteries are the thickest
 Lumens of veins are larger
 Skeletal muscle “milks” blood in veins
toward the heart
 Walls of capillaries are only one cell
layer thick to allow for exchanges
between blood and tissue
Copyright © 2003 Pearson Education, Inc. publishing as Benjamin Cummings Slide 11.26
 Movement of Blood Through
Vessels

 Most arterial blood is

pumped by the heart
 Veins use the milking
action of muscles to
help move blood

Figure 11.9

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Capillary Beds

 Capillary beds
consist of two
types of vessels
 Vascular shunt –
directly connects an
arteriole to a venule

Copyright © 2003 Pearson Education, Inc. publishing as Benjamin Cummings Figure 11.10 Slide 11.28a
Capillary Beds

 True capillaries –
exchange vessels
 Oxygen and
nutrients cross to
cells
 Carbon dioxide
and metabolic
waste products
cross into blood

Copyright © 2003 Pearson Education, Inc. publishing as Benjamin Cummings Figure 11.10 Slide 11.28b
Aorta Parts of Aorta:
• It is the largest • ascending aorta
artery of the body •Aortic arch
• Size of a garden • thoracic aorta
hose •Abdominal aorta
Arterial Branches of the Ascending
Aorta
• Right coronary artery
One of the major vessels
that provide blood to the
heart
It provides blood to the
right atrium, heart
ventricles, and cells in
the right atrial
• Left Coronary Artery
divides into the left
anterior descending
artery and the
circumflex branch,
supplies blood to the
heart ventricles and left
atrium
The left main coronary
artery supplies blood to
the left side of the heart
muscle
 Aortic Arch - The
Arch of
Aorta
aortic arch is a
continuation of the
ascending aorta. Between
the ascending and descending
aorta
Since coronary arteries deliver blood to
the heart muscle, any coronary artery
disorder or disease can have serious
implications by reducing the flow of
oxygen and nutrients to the heart
muscle. This can lead to a heart attack
and possibly death.
Branches of Aortic Arch
• Brachiocephalic Trunk
  The first and largest
branch that ascends
laterally to split into the
right common carotid
and right subclavian
arteries. These arteries
supply the right side of
the head and neck, and
the right upper limb.
 Branches of Aortic Arch
• Left common carotid artery
Supplies the left side of the head and neck
• The internal carotid artery supplies blood
to the brain.
• The external carotid artery supplies blood
to the face and neck
 Branches of Aortic Arch
• Subclavian artery
The subclavian arteries branch to the vertebral
arteries. These carry oxygenated blood up to
the brain from the base of the neck. The right
subclavian artery is located below the clavicle.
It branches off the brachiocephalic trunk. The
left subclavian artery branches off the arch of
the aorta. It ends at the first rib's lateral edge.
 Branches of Thoracic Aorta
• spans from the level of T4 to T12.
Continuing from the aortic arch, it initially
begins to the left of the vertebral column
but approaches the midline as it descends
 Branches of Thoracic Aorta
• intercostal and subcostal arteries: Small
paired arteries that branch off throughout the
length of the posterior thoracic aorta. The 9
pairs of intercostal arteries supply the
intercostal spaces, with the exception of the
first and second (they are supplied by a branch
from the subclavian artery). The subcostal
arteries supply the flat abdominal wall muscles.
 Branches of Thoracic Aorta
• Bronchial arteries: Paired visceral
branches arising laterally to
supply bronchial and peribronchial tissue
and visceral pleura. However, most
commonly, only the paired left bronchial
artery arises directly from the aorta whilst
the right branches off usually from the third
posterior intercostal artery.
 Branches of Thoracic Aorta
• Esophageal arteries: Unpaired visceral
branches arising anteriorly to supply
the esophagus.
 Branches of Thoracic Aorta
• Phrenic arteries: Paired parietal branches
that supply the superior portion of
the diaphragm.
 Abdominal Aorta

• The abdominal aorta is a continuation of the

thoracic aorta beginning at the level of the
T12 vertebrae. It is approximately 13cm
long and ends at the level of the L4
vertebra. At this level, the aorta terminates
by bifurcating into the right and left
common iliac arteries that supply the
lower body.
 Abdominal Aorta
• Celiac artery: A large, unpaired visceral
artery arising anteriorly at the level of T12.
It is also known as the celiac trunk and
supplies the liver, stomach, abdominal
oesophagus, spleen, the superior duodenum
and the superior pancreas.
 Abdominal Aorta
• Superior mesenteric artery: A large,
unpaired visceral artery arising anteriorly,
just below the celiac artery. It supplies the
distal duodenum, jejuno-ileum, ascending
colon and part of the transverse colon. It
arises at the lower level of L1.
 Abdominal Aorta
• Renal arteries: Paired visceral arteries that
arise laterally at the level between L1 and
L2. They supply the kidneys.
 Abdominal Aorta
• Gonadal arteries: Paired visceral arteries
that arise laterally at the level of L2. Note
that the male gonadal artery is referred to as
the testicular artery and in females,
the ovarian artery.
 Abdominal Aorta
• Lumbar arteries: There are four pairs of
parietal lumbar arteries that arise
posterolaterally between the levels of L1
and L4 to supply the abdominal wall
and spinal cord.
• Inferior Mesentric Artery – supplies the
second half of the artery
 Abdominal Aorta
• Common Iliac arteries – final branches
of abdominal aorta
Internal iliac – supplies pelvic organs
External iliac (femoral artery) – enters the
thigh
 Deep artery of the thigh - thigh
 Popliteal artery
 Anterior and Posterior tibial artery – leg and
foot
 Dorsalis pedis artery – via arcuate artery, it
supplies dorsum of the foot
 Major Veins of Sytematic
Circulation
• Veins are superficial
• Easily seen
• Palpated on the body surface
SUPERIOR VENA CAVA
INFERIOR VENA CAVA
 Superior Vena Cava
(Distal to Proximal)

• Radial Veins and Ulnar veins – deep veins

that drains the forearm
• Cephalic vein – drains the lateral aspect of the
arm
• Basilic Vein – a superficial vein, that drains
the medical aspect of the arm
• Subclavian vein – receives venous blood
from the arm
 Superior Vena Cava
(Distal to Proximal)

• Vertebral vein – drains the posterior part

of the head
• Internal jugular vein – drains the dural
sinuses of the brain
• Brachiocephalic veins – large veins that
receives venous drainage
 Inferior Vena Cava

• Anterior and Posterior tibial vein and

Fibular vein – drain the leg
• Great Saphenous veins – longest vein;
receives the superficial drianage of the leg
• Common iliac vein – formed by the union of
EIV and IIV
• R. gonodal vein – drains the right ovary in
females and right testicles in males
• L. gonodal vein- empties into the left renal
• Renal Veins – drain the kidneys
 Inferior Vena Cava
• Hepatic Portal Vein – a single vein that
drains the digestive tract organs
Arterial Supply of the Brain and the
Circle of Willies
• Internal Carotid Arteries –runs through
the neck and enter the skull through the
temporal bone
• Vertebral Arteries – pass upward from the
subclavian arteries ate the base of the neck
• Communicating arterial branches – unites
the anterior and posterior blood supplies of the
brain
• Cerebral Arterial circle (circle of willis) –
connecting blood vessel, that surrounds the
base of the brain
 Hepatic Portal Circulation
• Its veins drain the digestive organs, spleen
and pancreas and deliver this blood through
the hepatic portal vein
 Major blood vessels composing the
hepatic portal circulation
• Inferior mesentric vein – large intestine
• Superior mesentric vein- drains the small
intestine
• Splenic vein – drains the spleen , pancreas,
and the left side of the stomach
• Left gastric vein – right side of the
stomach
 Vital Signs
• Arterial pulse
• Blood pressure
• Repiratory Rate
• Body Temperature
• All indicate the efficiency of the system
Pulse

 Pulse –
pressure wave
of blood
 Monitored at
“pressure
points” where
pulse is easily
palpated
Figure 11.16
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Blood Pressure
 Measurements by health professionals
are made on the pressure in large
arteries
 Systolic – pressure at the peak of
ventricular contraction
 Diastolic – pressure when ventricles relax
 Pressure in blood vessels decreases as
the distance away from the heart
increases
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 Measuring Arterial Blood Pressure

Figure 11.18

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Blood Pressure: Effects of Factors

 Neural factors
 Autonomic nervous system adjustments
(sympathetic division)
 Renal factors
 Regulation by altering blood volume
 Renin – hormonal control

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Blood Pressure: Effects of Factors

 Temperature
 Heat has a vasodilation effect
 Cold has a vasoconstricting effect
 Chemicals
 Various substances can cause increases or
decreases
 Diet
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 Variations in Blood Pressure
 Human normal range is variable
 Normal
 140–110 mm Hg systolic (90-120)
 80–75 mm Hg diastolic (60-80)
 Hypotension
 Low systolic
 Often associated with illness
 Hypertension
 High systolic
 Can be dangerous if it is chronic
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Essentials of Human Anatomy & Physiology
Seventh Edition
Elaine N. Marieb

Chapter 10
Blood

Copyright © 2003 Pearson Education, Inc. publishing as Benjamin Cummings

 Blood

 The only fluid tissue in the human body

 Taste, Odor, 5x thicker than water
 Classified as a connective tissue
 Living cells = formed elements
 Non-living matrix = plasma (90% water)

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 Physical Characteristics of Blood
 Color range
Oxygen-rich blood is scarlet red
Oxygen-poor blood is dull red
 pH must remain between 7.35–7.45
 Slightly alkaline
 Blood temperature is slightly higher than
body temperature
 5-6 Liters or about 6 quarts /body
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 Blood

Figure 10.1

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 Blood Plasma

 Composed of approximately 90
percent water
 Includes many dissolved
substances
 Nutrients, Salts (metal ions)
 Respiratory gases
 Hormones
 Proteins, Waste products
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 Plasma Proteins

 Albumin – regulates osmotic pressure

 Clotting proteins – help to stem blood
loss when a blood vessel is injured
 Antibodies – help protect the body from
antigens

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 Formed Elements

 Erythrocytes = red blood cells

 Leukocytes = white blood cells
 Platelets = cell fragments

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yright © 2003 Pearson Education, Inc. publishing as Benjamin Cummings Slide 10.5b
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 Erythrocytes (Red Blood Cells)

 The main function is to carry oxygen

 Anatomy of circulating erythrocytes
 Biconcave disks
 Essentially bags of hemoglobin
 Anucleate (no nucleus)
 Contain very few organelles
 Outnumber white blood cells 1000:1
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 Hemoglobin

 Iron-containing protein
 Binds strongly, but reversibly, to oxygen
 Each hemoglobin molecule has four
oxygen binding sites
 Each erythrocyte has 250 million
hemoglobin molecules

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 Leukocytes (White Blood Cells)

 Crucial in the body’s defense against

disease
 These are complete cells, with a
nucleus and organelles
 Able to move into and out of blood
vessels (diapedesis)
 Can respond to chemicals released by
damaged tissues
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 Leukocyte Levels in the Blood

 Normal levels =4,000 to 11,000 cells/ml

 Abnormal leukocyte levels
 Leukocytosis
 Above 11,000 leukocytes/ml
 Generally indicates an infection
 Leukopenia
 Abnormally low leukocyte level
 Commonly caused by certain drugs
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 Types of Leukocytes

 Granulocytes
 Granules in their
cytoplasm can be
stained
 Include
neutrophils,
eosinophils, and
basophils Figure 10.4

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 Types of Leukocytes

 Agranulocytes
 Lack visible
cytoplasmic
granules
 Include
lymphocytes and
monocytes
Figure 10.4

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 Granulocytes

 Neutrophils
 Multilobed nucleus with fine granules
 Act as phagocytes at active sites of infection
 Eosinophils
 Large brick-red cytoplasmic granules
 Found in repsonse to allergies and parasitic
worms
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 Granulocytes

 Basophils
 Have histamine-containing granules
 Initiate inflammation

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 Agranulocytes

 Lymphocytes
 Nucleus fills most of the cell
 Play an important role in the immune
response
 Monocytes
 Largest of the white blood cells
 Function as macrophages
 Important in fighting chronic infection
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 Platelets

 Derived from ruptured multinucleate

cells (megakaryocytes)
 Needed for the clotting process
 Normal platelet count = 300,000/mm3

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 Hematopoiesis – Blood Cell
Formation

 Occurs in red bone marrow

 All blood cells are derived from a
common stem cell (hemocytoblast)

Copyright © 2003 Pearson Education, Inc. publishing as Benjamin Cummings Slide 10.14
 Fate of Erythrocytes

 Unable to divide, grow, or synthesize

proteins
 Wear out in 100 to 120 days
 When worn out, are eliminated by
phagocytes in the spleen or liver
 Lost cells are replaced by division of
stem cells
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 Hemostasis

 Stoppage of blood flow

 Result of a break in a blood vessel
 Hemostasis involves three phases
 Platelet plug formation
 Vascular spasms
 Coagulation
Copyright © 2003 Pearson Education, Inc. publishing as Benjamin Cummings Slide 10.18
1. Vessel damage, blood loss
2. Vascular spasm.
•

 
 
                                                    
 3. Platelet plug forms
4. Coagulation
•
•
 Platelet Plug Formation

 Collagen fibers are exposed by a break

in a blood vessel
 Platelets become “sticky” and cling to
fibers
 Anchored platelets release chemicals to
attract more platelets
 Platelets pile up to form a platelet plug
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 Vascular Spasms

 Anchored platelets release serotonin

 Serotonin causes blood vessel muscles
to spasm
 Spasms narrow the blood vessel,
decreasing blood loss

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 Coagulation

 Injured tissues release thromboplastin

 PF3 (a phospholipid) interacts with
thromboplastin, blood protein clotting
factors, and calcium ions to trigger a
clotting cascade
 Prothrombin activator converts
prothrombin to thrombin (an enzyme)
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 Coagulation, cont.

 Thrombin joins fibrinogen proteins into

hair-like fibrin
 Fibrin forms a meshwork
(the basis for a clot)

Copyright © 2003 Pearson Education, Inc. publishing as Benjamin Cummings Slide 10.21b
 Blood Clotting

 Blood usually clots within 3 to 6 minutes

 The clot remains as endothelium
regenerates
 The clot is broken down after tissue
repair

Copyright © 2003 Pearson Education, Inc. publishing as Benjamin Cummings Slide 10.22
 Undesirable Clotting

 Thrombus
 A clot in an unbroken blood vessel
 Can be deadly in areas like the heart
 Embolus
 A thrombus that breaks away and floats
freely in the bloodstream
 Can later clog vessels in critical areas such
as the brain Slide 10.23
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 Bleeding Disorders
 Thrombocytopenia (caused by viruses,
medications or post-bone CA trtment)
 Platelet deficiency
 Even normal movements can cause
bleeding from small blood vessels that
require platelets for clotting
 Hemophilia
 Hereditary bleeding disorder
 Normal clotting factors are missing
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 Blood Groups and Transfusions
 Large losses of blood have
serious consequences
 Loss of 15 to 30 percent
causes weakness
 Loss of over 30 percent
causes shock, which can be
fatal
 Transfusions are the only
way to replace blood quickly
 Transfused blood must be of
the same blood group
Copyright © 2003 Pearson Education, Inc. publishing as Benjamin Cummings Slide 10.25
 Human Blood Groups

 Blood contains genetically determined

proteins
 A foreign protein (antigen) may be
attacked by the immune system
 Blood is “typed” by using antibodies that
will cause blood with certain proteins to
clump (agglutination)

Copyright © 2003 Pearson Education, Inc. publishing as Benjamin Cummings Slide 10.26a
 Human Blood Groups

 There are over 30 common red blood

cell antigens
 The most vigorous transfusion reactions
are caused by ABO and Rh blood group
antigens

Copyright © 2003 Pearson Education, Inc. publishing as Benjamin Cummings Slide 10.26b
 ABO Blood Groups

 Based on the presence or absence of two

antigens
 Type A
 Type B
 The lack of these antigens is called
type O

Copyright © 2003 Pearson Education, Inc. publishing as Benjamin Cummings Slide 10.27a
Blood Types Determine Blood
Compatibility

Figure 7.11
 ABO Blood Groups

 The presence of both A and B is called

type AB
 The presence of either A or B is called
types A and B, respectively

Copyright © 2003 Pearson Education, Inc. publishing as Benjamin Cummings Slide 10.27b
 Rh Blood Groups

 Named because of the presence or

absence of one of eight Rh antigens
(agglutinogen D)
 Most Americans are Rh+
 Problems can occur in mixing Rh+ blood
into a body with Rh– blood

Copyright © 2003 Pearson Education, Inc. publishing as Benjamin Cummings Slide 10.28
 Rh Dangers During Pregnancy

 Danger is only when the mother is Rh–

and the father is Rh+, and the child
inherits the Rh+ factor

Copyright © 2003 Pearson Education, Inc. publishing as Benjamin Cummings Slide 10.29a
Rh Dangers During Pregnancy

 The mismatch of an Rh– mother carrying

an Rh+ baby can cause problems for the
unborn child
 The first pregnancy usually proceeds without
problems
 The immune system is sensitized after the
first pregnancy
 In a second pregnancy, the mother’s immune
system produces antibodies to attack the Rh+
blood (hemolytic disease of the newborn)Slide 10.29b
Copyright © 2003 Pearson Education, Inc. publishing as Benjamin Cummings
 Blood Typing

 Blood samples are mixed with anti-A

and anti-B serum
 Coagulation or no coagulation leads
to determining blood type
 Typing for ABO and Rh factors is
done in the same manner
 Cross matching – testing for
agglutination of donor RBCs by the
Copyright © 2003 Pearson Education, Inc. publishing as Benjamin Cummings Slide 10.30
Essentials of Human Anatomy & Physiology
Seventh Edition
Elaine N. Marieb

Chapter 12
The Lymphatic System
and Body Defenses

Slides 12.1 – 12.22

Lecture Slides in PowerPoint by Jerry L. Cook

Copyright © 2003 Pearson Education, Inc. publishing as Benjamin Cummings
The Lymphatic System

 Consists of two semi-independent parts

 Lymphatic vessels
 Lymphoid tissues and organs
 Lymphatic system functions
 Transport fluids back to the blood
 Play essential roles in body defense and
resistance to disease
Copyright © 2003 Pearson Education, Inc. publishing as Benjamin Cummings Slide 12.1
Lymphatic Characteristics
 Lymph – excess tissue fluid carried by
lymphatic vessels
 Properties of lymphatic vessels
 One way system toward the heart
 No pump
 Lymph moves toward the heart
 Milking action of skeletal muscle
 Rhythmic contraction of smooth muscle
in vessel walls
Copyright © 2003 Pearson Education, Inc. publishing as Benjamin Cummings Slide 12.2
Lymphatic Vessels

 Lymph Capillaries
 Walls overlap to form flap-like minivalves
 Fluid leaks into lymph capillaries
 Capillaries are anchored to connective
tissue by filaments
 Higher pressure on the inside closes
minivalves

Copyright © 2003 Pearson Education, Inc. publishing as Benjamin Cummings Slide 12.3a
Lymphatic Vessels

Figure 12.1

Copyright © 2003 Pearson Education, Inc. publishing as Benjamin Cummings Slide 12.3b
Lymphatic Vessels

 Lymphatic
collecting vessels
 Collects lymph
from lymph
capillaries
 Carries lymph to
and away from
lymph nodes

Copyright © 2003 Pearson Education, Inc. publishing as Benjamin Cummings Figure 12.2 Slide 12.4a
Lymphatic Vessels

 Lymphatic
collecting vessels
(continued)
 Returns fluid to
circulatory veins
near the heart
 Right lymphatic
duct
 Thoracic duct
Copyright © 2003 Pearson Education, Inc. publishing as Benjamin Cummings Figure 12.2 Slide 12.4b
Lymph

 Materials returned to the blood

 Water
 Blood cells
 Proteins

Copyright © 2003 Pearson Education, Inc. publishing as Benjamin Cummings Slide 12.5a
Lymph

 Harmful materials that enter lymph

vessels
 Bacteria
 Viruses
 Cancer cells
 Cell debris

Copyright © 2003 Pearson Education, Inc. publishing as Benjamin Cummings Slide 12.5b
Lymph Nodes

 Filter lymph before it is returned to the

blood
 Defense cells within lymph nodes
 Macrophages – engulf and destroy foreign
substances
 Lymphocytes – provide immune response to
antigens

Copyright © 2003 Pearson Education, Inc. publishing as Benjamin Cummings Slide 12.6a
Lymph Nodes

Figure 12.3

Copyright © 2003 Pearson Education, Inc. publishing as Benjamin Cummings Slide 12.6b
Lymph Node Structure
 Most are kidney-shaped, less than 1 inch
long
 Cortex
 Outer part
 Contains follicles – collections of
lymphocytes
 Medulla
 Inner part
 Contains phagocytic macrophages
Copyright © 2003 Pearson Education, Inc. publishing as Benjamin Cummings Slide 12.7a
Lymph Node Structure

Figure 12.4

Copyright © 2003 Pearson Education, Inc. publishing as Benjamin Cummings Slide 12.7b
Flow of Lymph Through Nodes

 Lymph enters the convex side through

afferent lymphatic vessels
 Lymph flows through a number of
sinuses inside the node
 Lymph exits through efferent lymphatic
vessels
 Fewer efferent than afferent vessels
causes flow to be slowed
Copyright © 2003 Pearson Education, Inc. publishing as Benjamin Cummings Slide 12.8
Other Lymphoid Organs

 Several other
organs contribute
to lymphatic
function
 Spleen
 Thymus
 Tonsils
 Peyer’s patches
Figure 12.5
Copyright © 2003 Pearson Education, Inc. publishing as Benjamin Cummings Slide 12.9
The Spleen
 Located on the left side of
the abdomen
 Filters blood
 Destroys worn out blood
cells
 Forms blood cells in the
fetus
 Acts as a blood reservoir
Copyright © 2003 Pearson Education, Inc. publishing as Benjamin Cummings Slide 12.10
The Thymus
 Located low in the
throat, overlying the
heart
 Functions at peak
levels only during
childhood
 Produces hormones
(like thymosin) to
program lymphocytes

Copyright © 2003 Pearson Education, Inc. publishing as Benjamin Cummings Slide 12.11
Tonsils

 Small masses of lymphoid tissue around

the pharynx
 Trap and remove bacteria and other
foreign materials
 Tonsillitis is caused by congestion with
bacteria

Copyright © 2003 Pearson Education, Inc. publishing as Benjamin Cummings Slide 12.12
Peyer’s Patches
 Found in the wall of the small intestine
 Resemble tonsils/nodes in structure
 Capture and destroy bacteria in the
intestine

Slide 12.13
Mucosa-Associated Lymphatic
Tissue (MALT)
 Includes:
 Peyer’s patches
 Tonsils
 Other small accumulations of lymphoid
tissue
 Acts as a sentinal to protect mucosal
linings (contain lymphocytes)
Copyright © 2003 Pearson Education, Inc. publishing as Benjamin Cummings Slide 12.14
Body Defenses
 The body is constantly in contact with
bacteria, fungi, and viruses
 The body has two defense systems for
foreign materials
 Nonspecific defense system
 Mechanisms protect against a variety of
invaders
 Responds immediately to protect body
from foreign materials
Copyright © 2003 Pearson Education, Inc. publishing as Benjamin Cummings Slide 12.15a
Body Defenses

Specific defense system

 Specific defense is required for each type
of invader
 Also known as the immune system

Copyright © 2003 Pearson Education, Inc. publishing as Benjamin Cummings Slide 12.15b
Nonspecific Body Defenses

 Body surface coverings

 Intact skin
 Mucous membranes
 Specialized human cells
 Chemicals produced by the body

Copyright © 2003 Pearson Education, Inc. publishing as Benjamin Cummings Slide 12.16
Surface Membrane Barriers –
First Line of Defense

 The skin
 Physical barrier to foreign materials
 pH of the skin is acidic to inhibit bacterial
growth
 Sebum is toxic to bacteria
 Vaginal secretions are very acidic

Copyright © 2003 Pearson Education, Inc. publishing as Benjamin Cummings Slide 12.17a
Surface Membrane Barriers –
First Line of Defense
 Stomach mucosa
 Secretes hydrochloric acid
 Has protein-digesting enzymes
 Saliva and lacrimal fluid contain
lysozyme
 Mucus traps microogranisms in
digestive and respiratory pathways
Copyright © 2003 Pearson Education, Inc. publishing as Benjamin Cummings Slide 12.17b
Defensive Cells

 Phagocytes
(neutrophils and
macrophages)
 Engulfs foreign
material into a
vacuole
 Enzymes from
lysosomes digest
the material
Copyright © 2003 Pearson Education, Inc. publishing as Benjamin Cummings Figure 12.6b Slide 12.18a
Defensive Cells

 Natural killer (NK)

cells
 Can lyse and kill
cancer cells
 Can destroy virus-
infected cells

Copyright © 2003 Pearson Education, Inc. publishing as Benjamin Cummings Figure 12.6b Slide 12.18b
Inflammatory Response -
Second Line of Defense
 Triggered when body tissues are injured
 Produces four cardinal signs
 Redness
 Heat
 Swelling
 Pain
 Results in a chain of events leading to
protection and healing
Copyright © 2003 Pearson Education, Inc. publishing as Benjamin Cummings Slide 12.19
Functions of the Inflammatory
Response

 Prevents spread of damaging agents

 Disposes of cell debris and pathogens
 Sets the stage for repair

Copyright © 2003 Pearson Education, Inc. publishing as Benjamin Cummings Slide 12.20
Steps in the Inflammatory Response

Figure 12.7
Copyright © 2003 Pearson Education, Inc. publishing as Benjamin Cummings Slide 12.21
Antimicrobial Chemicals

 Complement
Proteins
 A group of at
least 20
plasma
proteins
 Activated when
they encounter
and attach to
cells
(complement Figure 12.8

fixation) Slide 12.22a

Antimicrobial Chemicals
 Complement
(continued)
 Damage foreign
cell surfaces
 Has vasodilators,
chemotaxis, and
opsonization (think
phagocyte
pheromones)

Figure 12.8

Copyright © 2003 Pearson Education, Inc. publishing as Benjamin Cummings Slide 12.22b
Antimicrobial Chemicals

 Interferon
 Secreted proteins of virus-infected cells
 Bind to healthy cell surfaces to inhibit viruses
binding

Copyright © 2003 Pearson Education, Inc. publishing as Benjamin Cummings Slide 12.22c