LESSON 5.

TRAFFIC ACCIDENT
INVESTIGATION
 TRAFFIC ACCIDENT
INVESTIGATION

Concept:
Traffic Accident Investigation. Generally, to know
what question to ask and what to look for, you must
have some fundamental bearing on accidents and their
causes. When you speak of traffic accident everybody
knows what you mean SOMETHING WENT
WRONG on the highway, either a wrecked car,
somebody is injured or possibly killed.
 What Traffic Accident Investigation
Determines?
It aims to know the five (5) "Ws" and one (1) "H" of the incident:

1. WHAT happened?
2. WHO and WHAT was involved?
3. WHERE did it happen?
4. WHY did it happen?
5. HOW did the accident occur?
6. WHEN did the accident happen?
 Purposes of Traffic Accident Investigation. There
are four (4)
main reasons, depending on who does the
investigation:
1. Everyone involved is curious about the causes and circumstances of the
accident.
2. For the police to find out whether there is enough evidence of law violation
in the accident
3. Claims attorneys and adjusters want to determine negligence on the part of
the drivers involved in the accident so that damage claims can be properly
adjusted.
4 Officials and others want specific information about accidents to know how
to prevent future accidents.
 Common Words and Phrases Used in Traffic Accident
investigation.

The following words and phrases with their responding meaning

are often used in the process:

Accident
It is that occurrence in a
sequence of events which
usually produces unintended
injury, death, or property
damage.
Traffic Accident Motor Vehicle Accident
An accident involving Events resulting in unintended
travel transportation on a injury or property damage
traffic way. attributable directly or
indirectly to the action of a
motor vehicle or its loads.
 Accidental injury from inhalation of exhaust gas;

Excluded are:

b. Fires a. Collision of a motor vehicle with an

aircraft or water-craft in motion;
c .Explosion;
d. Discharge of firearm within the motor b. Injury or damage due to cataclysms
vehicle while in motion; (flood or sudden physical change of the
earth surface); and
e. Collision between a motor vehicle and a
railroad train or street car on stationary rails C. Injury or damage while the motor vehicle
or tracks; and is not under its power is being loaded on or
unloaded from another conveyance.
f. Failure of any part of the motor vehicle
while the vehicle is in motion.
Motor Vehicle Key Event
Every device which is self- An event on the road which
propelled and every vehicle characterizes the manner of
which is propelled by electric occurrence of a motor
power obtained from overhead vehicle traffic accident
trolley wires, but not operated
upon rails.
 Skid Marks
Debris These are marks left on the
The scattered broken parts of roadway by tires which are not
vehicles, rubbish, dust and other free to rotate, usually because
materials left at the scene of the brakes are applied strong and the
accident caused by a collision. wheels locked.
Traffic Unit It applies not only to motor
Any person using a traffic way vehicles but also to:
for travel, parking or other
a. Pedestrians;
purposes as a pedestrian or
driver, including any vehicle, b. Cydists Street cars;
animal which he is using. d. Horse-drawn (animal-drawn)
vehicles;
e. Farm tractors; and
f. Other road users in almost any
combination Example: A traffic
accident could involve a cyclist and a
pedestrian.
Hazards Safe Speed
A hazard is generated when a The speed adjusted to the potential or
critical space-motion relationships possible hazards or the road and traffic
between a traffic unit and another situation ahead. Safe speed on the road
object develops due to the movement is determined by the road rather than the
of either or both. Example: A Curve particular driver of a vehicle. Example:
in the path i5 a hazard. Another A curve ahead is a hazard and a safe
traffic unit in the path is als0 a speed fort is a speed at which it can be
hazard. taken comfortably.
Strategy Tactic
It is the adjusting of speed, Any action taken by the traffic
position on the road, direction unit to avoid hazardous
of motion, giving signals of Situations like steering, braking,
intent to turn or slow down, or accelerating to avoid collision
any other action in situations or other accident.
involving potential hazards.
Impact Contact Damage
The striking of one body Damage to a vehicle resulting
against another or a from direct pressure of some
collision of a motor foreign object in collision are
vehicle with another roll over. It is usually
motor vehicle. indicated by striations, nub-
off of material or puncture.
Factor Primary Cause
Any circumstance contributing obvious or easily explained
to a result without which the factor in the cause of an
result could not have occurred or accident or the most easily
it is an element necessary to modified condition factor. A
produce the result, but not by
itself sufficient.
misnomer loosely applied to
the most easily modified
condition factor.
Cause Attribute
The combination of Any inherent
simultaneous and sequential characteristics of a road,
factors without any one of a vehicle, or a person that
which result could not have
occurred.
affects the probability of
a traffic accident.
Modifier
A circumstance that alters an attribute permanently or
temporarily.
 Kinds of Traffic Accidents
In the investigation of traffic accidents, tis imperative for the traffic investigator to know
the kinds on accident Occurred in order to map out the necessary activities to be done
when responding and investigating.

Non-Motor Vehicle Traffic

Accident
Refers to any accident occurring on a traffic
way involving persons using the traffic way
or travel or transportation, but not evolving
& motor vehicle in motion
Example: pedestrian and cyclist in a traffic
way.
 Motor Vehicle Non-Traffic Accident

Any motor vehicle accident

which occurs entirely in any
place other than a traffic way
Example: accident on a private
driveway.
 Motor Vehicle Traffic Accident

Any motor vehicle accident

occurring on a traffic way.
Example: collision between
automobiles on a highway.
 Classification of Motor Vehicle Traffic Accident
According to Key Event

Running off road

This is usually characterized by a motor vehicle falling on the
roadside or on a cliff along mountainous roads (see figure 47).
 Non-collision on road

This does not involve any collision an example of which is

overturning (see figure 48).
 Collision on road
On the other hand, this type of accident includes all forms of
accident as long as there is a collision. Examples of this are
motor vehicle colliding with:
 Pedestrian

may be walking, running or standing on a roadway (see

figure 49).
Other motor vehicle in traffic may be head on, head and rear,
sides opposite direction, sides the same direction, head and
side collision, etc. (see figures 50.1-50.5).

 Illustrations shows Vehicles 1 and 2

colliding head on

 Illustrations shows Vehicles 1 and 2

head rear collision
Sideswipe opposite
direction

Sideswipe same
direction
 Head side angle collision

 Motor vehicle
collision with fixed
object
 Classification of Accidents According to
Severity
1. Property Damage Accident 4. Less Serious

There is no fatal or injury to any person Only less serious injures to persons.
but only damage to the motor vehicle or to
5. Serious
other property including injury to animals.
This causes serious injuries to persons.
2. Slight
6. Fatal
Only slight damages to properties
This results in death to one or more
3. Non-Fatal Injury Accident
persons.
This results in injuries other than total to
one or more persons.
 Causes of Motor Vehicle Traffic Accidents
Traffic accident Occur due to varying circumstances and only after thorough
investigation when liability and responsibility can be ascertained. Notwithstanding
the no driver will readily accept that he initiated the accident. with these, the traffic
investigator is faced with a gargantuan task of banging of the truth on who should be
held responsible for the unusual incident. The primary concern will be to determine
how and why the accident happened.

1. Simultaneous Factors 2. Sequential Factors

3. Operational Factors
a. Road conditions. a. Speed is greater or less a. Road hazards.
than safe. b. Driver's non-compliance
b. Drivers attitude or to traffic laws, rules and
b. Defective vehicle (vehicle
behavior. malfunction). regulations
C.Weather condition.
 Perception Factors
a. Driver's inability to react b. Driver's faulty action to escape collision course
promptly to a situation. When all possible causes of an accident have been
grouped together by an investigating officer and he
believes the accident would not ha Occurred if any
one of these causes did not exist, then the
investigator may have identified the combination of
factors causing the accident. On-the-scene
reconstruction of a traffic accident relates accident
causation to direct causes for summary police action
and to address mediate and early causes for ongoing
studies of high-frequency accident locations and
future research and analysis.
 Chain of Events in a Vehicular Accident
For the purpose reporting, traffic accident may usually be described well enough as a single
occurrence out When &accident is investigated, attention is directed Particular stages of the
occurrence. In fact, an accident may be sally defined as a series of an expected events leading to
damage or Injury. One event Usually leads to another so that the series can be ken of as a "chain
of events." These events are described and lustrated below

Perception of Hazard

It is seeing, feeling, or hearing and

understanding the usual or unexpected movement
or condition that
could be taken as sign of the accident about to
happen (see figure 52).
Start of evasive action
Initial Contact
It is the first action taken by a traffic unit to
The first accidental touching of an object
escape from a collision course or otherwise
collision course or otherwise avoids a
avoid a hazard (see figure 53).
hazard (see figure 54).
Maximum Engagement Disengagement
It is greatest collapse or overlap in a
collision. The force between the traffic unit
It is the separation of a traffic unit in
and the object collided with are greatest at motion The force between the object
maximum engagement (see figure 55). ceases at this time .
Stopping Injury
This is when the traffic unit/s It is receiving bodily harm. This event does
involved come to rest. It usually not necessary occur after the accident but
within any of the chain of events. It may
stabilizes the accident situation (see also happen right after the evasive action
figure 57) taken by the drivers involved or during the
initial contact.
 Other events that may occur during an
accident
Point of Possible Perception Point of no Escape
The place and time of which the hazard It is that place and time after or
could have been perceived by a normal
person. It precedes actual perception and is beyond which the accident cannot be
the beginning of perception delay (see prevented by the traffic unit under
figure 58). consideration (see figure 59).
Perception Delay Final Position
perception to actual It is the place and time
perception. when objects invoke in a
accident finally come to rest
without application of
power.
 Five (5) Levels of Activity in Accident Investigation. In the
investigation of traffic accidents, the police are guided by
the following stages or levels of investigation
Reporting
This stage involves basic data collection
to identify and classify a motor vehicle,
traffic and persons, property and planned
movements involved.

At-Scene Investigation
This level involves all action taken by the
investigator at the scene of the crime or
accident.
Technical Preparation Professional Reconstruction
This involves delayed traffic
accident data collection and determine from whatever
organization for study and information is available, how
interpretation. the accident happened.

Cause Analysis
This last level usually involves
final analysis on the causes of
accident which are bases for the
prevention of similar accident.
Steps Taken by the Police during Traffic Accident Investigation. Like in any other forms
of police investigations, the traffic investigators follow chronological steps in responding
and investigating traffic-related accidents to insure gathering of thorough information.

Step One. Upon Learning of the Accident. Step Two. Start for the Scene
With two-way radio, you can do two things while on the way.
a. Ask first: When did the accident happen?, Exactly
where was It?; How bad was it?; Did you see the a. Choose Best Approach. Consider: Time; possible traffic jams; possible
route of driver involved, and probable situation at scene.
accident happened?; and Where can you be reached?
b. Drive Safely. Get there safely; if you get involved in accidents
b. Decide whether to go to the scene: Will scene have yourself, then other units must be used.
been C. Be Alert for Cars Leaving the Scene: As possible witnesses or hit and
run drivers; and record registration numbers of any likely looking
Cleared by the time of arrival?; Is it in investigator's vehicles.
area?; and Should headquarters be informed or
d. Get Equipment Ready for Use. So far as practical on the way driver
consulted? approaching Scene.
c. Then find out, if necessary: Is traffic blocked?; Has e. Look for Conditions confronting Low visibility view obstructions; and
ambulance traffic control devices.
f. Note Hazards to approaching Traffic: Drop helper to direct traffic if
been called?; Has wrencher been called, and Was fire necessary; and look for physical evidence. guarded until it can be
apparatus called? examined, collected or located.
 Step Three Step Four
Upon Arrival at the When Emergency is Under
Accident Scene. Control.
a. Select parking place carefully: 1s it safe?; Will it block traffic?; a.Preliminary questioning of drivers: Who was driving each vehicle?, Note
and Can headlight illuminate scene? unpremeditated statement; and look for signs of nervousness, confusion and
intoxication.
b. Care for injured: Stop arterial bleeding; call for help if necessary;
help injured from cars safely; protect injured from exposure; and b. Gather clues for identifying hit and run cars: Question other witnesses
ask for emergency assistance from bystanders from anywhere. especially bystanders in hurry to go; and if needed, get signed statement at
once from why who may be hard to find later.
C. Look over bystanders and others: Look for. drivers; look for
possible witnesses; look for volunteers who will help you; and get C.Examine drivers' conditions: Get specimen for chemical test, and question
them under control. about trip plan for possible fatigue

d. Have Emergencies Under Control: Have spilled gasoline guarded; d. Question drivers carefully: Check license and record data from it; verify
and identify address; check registration and record data verify ownership and
look for fire and electrical hazards; look for traffic hazards; put out correct address; and Get step by step account of what driver saw and did.
flares; ask helper to direct traffic; keep bystanders off roadway; and
request heip from headquarters if needed. e. Position and and condition of vehicles: Note lights and light Switches,
note gear position and tires, mark position of vehicles if it must be removed,
e. Locate drivers: Consider possibility of hit and run accident; and and look for unusual thing inside the vehicles
need to alert headquarters.
f. Form preliminary opinion as to how accident occurs.
f.Measure location of short lived evidences.
g. Photography: Photograph skid mark and location of vehicles and mark
g. Arrange for clearing roadway. skid mark location for later measurement.
h.Delay removal of vehicle except to ad injured. h. Record place to which injured persons or damage vehicles were or will be
taken.
 Step Five
After Getting Short-live Evidence.

a. Get additional evidence: Make test skids; decide f. Make additional photographs of Vehicle damage;
whether proof of violation is sufficient for arrest, if view obstruction; pavement's conditions; and
so, make arrest or issue Citation; get additional control devices, and general view, etc.
formal statements, from witnesses remaining at the
scene; and have road clear if traffic is obstructed g. Establish exact location of accident and record it.
b. Suggestion to drivers, if necessary: How much h. Measure for scale diagram if location is hard to
accidents can be avoided in the future; and tell drivers reach.
what reports they must make and dismiss them.
i. Review notes of evidence or testimony: Get
C. Approach the scene by path of each traffic unit additional facts at scene; and identify all notes with
involved. Look for: View obstructions; traffic control places and time.
devices, etc.; probable points of perception; and road
surface conditions. j.Clean up location or arrange to have it done.

d. Complete examinations of vehicles. k. Report to headquarters by radio or telephone.

Nowadays, the cellular phone is a ready alternative
e. Locate key event of accident. in reporting to police headquarter.
 Step Six
After Leaving the Scene
a. Get medical report on injured persons from doctor or g. decide whether analysis of accident is
hospital
warranted by the time available for making it.
b. Question drivers or witnesses: At hospital or home if
adequately questioned; and take needed additional statements h.reconstruction of the accident: Estimate
speeds of vehicles into draw scale diagram;
c. Notify: Relatives of dead or injured; and/or Owner of
vehicles analyse angle of collision; get technical help if
necessary and summarize opinions.
d. Have specimens analysed if were taken for chemical
laboratory test. i.Present case summary to a lawyer.
e. Have photograph developed; get prints if needed for report.
j.Complete report or investigation.
f.Complete the report of the accident: Have copies made
necessary; file report and copies; and complete factual data k.Submit to superior for approval, Inform
investigation report if not completed at scene. other Agencies or departments of any
condition at the scene which needs attention
for safety.
 Step Seven
If Case Goes to Court
a. Find out what the prosecutor wants further d. Have enlargement made of any photo needed
to develop evidence. in court.
b. Return to the scene if necessary for the e. Enlarge scale diagram made for court use.
following: Additional photographs of general
scene and long-lived evidence; measure for f. Pre-trial conference with prosecution
scale diagram for use in court; and Locate witnesses to review testimony.
additional witnesses and review their G. Insure that subpoenas are issued.
testimony.
h. Testify in court.
C. Locate also, if necessary: Relatives and
friends who confirm activities before the i.Organize papers and file permanently, if
accident; technicians who developed pictures, necessary, for future reference.
made chemical tests, etc.; and expert who can
help. j. Insure that the disposition of case is recorded
in drivers record and other reports.
 The Traffic Accident Report
In the preparation of the accident investigation report, the officer of the case
must consider following:

1. Uniform traffic Accident Reporting C.Traffic Accident Investigation

System.
Report will be accomplished in
2. Preparation of Traffic Accident Report: five (5) copies for: the Court or
a. By a competent, bonafide traffic accident Prosecutor's Office; TRAFCOM
investigator. (TMG) or Traffic Division; the
b. Requirements for an investigator in the Investigator, the Insurance
submission of report Such as evidence company of Party-involved #1;
gathered, diagrams, sketches as well as sworn
statements of witnesses.
and the Insurance Co. of Party-
involved #2
 Sample of Traffic Accident Investigation Report Form

Attached on the next pages is an example of the standard traffic

accident investigation report form used to facilitate speedy
investigation accidents. The form is designed for an expeditious
investigation because. It is filled-up mostly by checking the
corresponding boxes that describe the accident. However, additional
paper is usually used by traffic accident investigators to prepare the
on-the-spot sketch of the accident scene.
 LESSON 5.5

HIT-AND-RUN
INVESTIGATION
 Concept

Rationale. The objective of the investigation of a motor

vehicle accident involving the flight of one of the participants
is two fold: First responsibility for the collision must be
determined and second the identity of the driver of the vehicle
who fled the scene must be established.
This lesson covers the latter of these objectives, the
identification of the driver who left the scene without
complying with the legal requirement of stopping, giving aid
and identifying himself to the other participants.
 Hit-and-run Cases
DEFINED  Evading responsibility is a term commonly applied
to a traffic accident in which a driver fails to
comply with any of the duties required by Sec. 55
of RA 4136. Further, it states that no driver of a
motor vehicle vehicle concerned in a vehicle
accident shall leave the scene of the accident
without aiding the victim, except under any of the
following circumstances, as discussed earlier in
this book: the driver is in imminent danger of
being seriously harmed by any person or persons
by reason of the accident; if the diver reports the
accident to the nearest officers of the law; or if the
driver has to summon a physician or nurse to aid
the victim.
 Reasons of Apprehending and Prosecuting Hit-and-
Run Drivers

Hit-and-run drivers must be apprehended and the proper charges must be fled
against them because of the following reasons:

1.Injury might have been lessened or death 3. Public knowledge that the police usually
prevented if the drive had promptly sought apprehend and convict hit-and-run drivers
help instead of leaving the accident scene; deters other drivers who might otherwise be
inclined to evade responsibility by
2.Streets would not be safe if motorists committing this serious offense; and
could flee accident scenes without
accepting responsibility. Unless the 4. Since leaving the scene of an accident is
negligent driver is found, accident victims not socially acceptable, the police secure
cannot get compensation for injuries and increased public support for the entire traffic
property damage; control program by prompt apprehension and
successful prosecution of these offenders.
 Two Important Considerations
In any investigation of this kind of accident, two basic considerations must be
kept in mind. These are:

1. The driver who flees the scene of an accident is not As stated earlier, the basic objective of these
necessarily the driver responsible for the accident. His investigations is the identification of the
reasons for flight are often more important than the
simple evasion of responsibility. He may be wanted for driver who fled the scene. The discovery and
another crime, or intoxicated, or without a valid arrest Other driver, once identified generally
license, etc comes after the location and recovery of the
2. The hit-and-run driver often will report the damage vehicle.
to his own vehicle as having been the result of another
hit-and-run accident in which some "other mysterious However, the mere recovery of the vehicle
driver" fled without identifying himself. Similarly, it is does not always immediately establish the
not unusual for the hit-and-run driver to abandon his identity of the driver.
vehicle and then report it stolen as a means of covering
up his involvement in the accident.
 Elements of Hit-and-Run
To attain the objective of  You must prove suspect was driving the vehicle at
identity and apprehending the time of the accident. Even if you have witnesses
the hit-and-run driver, as the to prove this, get evidence disprove his alibi.
investigator:  Suspect was involved in an accident resulting in
death, personal injury or damage to property.
 Suspect failed to stop, give aid or information as to
his identity other person(s) involved, to police or to
anyone at the accident scene or failed to take
reasonable steps to notify the owner of damaged
property other than a vehicle. Do not overlook the
possibility of a simulated second accident to explain
damaged caused by the first accident.
 Suspect had knowledge of the accident

Physical evidence may prove the vehicle figured in the

accident.
Extent of damage to vehicle. Extensive damage to vehicle
would preclude allegation of lack of knowledge. If suspect
refrained from using his vehicle for several days since the
accident, this would also indicate the guilt.
Guard against claims that the vehicle was stolen to evade
responsibility.
 The Hit-and-Run Operator
The personality of the hit-and-run driver may be one of the following:
Three categories based upon possible psychological explanation for
their motivation of flight:

a. Apprehensive-panic-drive, fearful driver: c. The sneak operator

intoxicated drivers without license; no insurance; his
companion in the car is not his/her mate; stolen car; damage-only accidents like one that
stolen goods in car; leaving scene of another crime; smashes a fender and smashes fender and
and fleeing crime scene or wanted for crime
smashes grillwork in his daily occupational
b. Projectionist-projects guilt This type of drivers sits activities and chalks up his action as the
as judge and jury, tries the case himself, finds the calculated risk shared by all vehicle owners
other driver at fault refuses to be a party to the
accident and drives off as the offended person. who place their vehicles on the roadway.
 Classes of Hit-and-Run Drivers

They could be Drunk drivers; criminals fleeing

from the scene of the crime;
improperly licensed drivers or
drivers with no license or with
revoked or expired license driver
who fear publicity and prosecution;
ignorance of the accident; drivee
flees in panic; drug addicts;
insurance or financial reasons; who
and or juveniles.
 Preliminary Steps in Hit-and-Run
Investigation

The following usually serve as the guideline for hit-and-run cases investigators:

Refer to checklist on Accident Investigation.

Obtain the best possible descriptions of the
car and driver.
a. A good description may be obtained from
partial descriptions given by witnesses.
b. Get the license plate and any unusual
features of the vehicle.
 3. Appeal for information through local newspapers, radio, T.V,
etc.
4. Carefully search the hit-and-run scene for physical evidence.

 Concentrate on the car's description first.  These may include broken glasses and
fragments, hubcaps paint scrapping from
 Dispatch initial description and al hit-and-run car, other evidence such as dirt
subsequent information to the from subject car, radiator, ornament, etc..
Headquarters and to police agencies that
may assist in potting and stopping the  Carefully preserve and label all evidence
suspect vehicle. found at the scene
 Broadcast descriptions of the suspected  Request laboratory study of evidence
car and driver to all police units and
offices.   Watch out for the possible return of the
hit-and-un driver to the scene of the
 Try to determine the damage to the fleeing accident. This has been known to happen.
car.
The Victim
Check his clothing; other parts of his body, tire
marks, grease paint chips, fragments, and such
things that might have been let on him by the
suspect car.
If the victim is killed, get samples of
uncontaminated blood from him at the morgue
and samples of hair, skin, etc..
Collect and preserve for laboratory
examination, the clothes shoes, and other items
he was wearing at the time of the accident.
 Follow-up Investigation
Search for Suspect Car. If it is
During follow-up investigation,
located and recovered:
the investigator should:

Interview persons living along the route taken by the hit-  Look for physical evidence, such as latent
and-run driver, also operators of filing stations and fingerprints, pieces of clothing, marks,
garages. damaged parts, hair, blood, etc. which will

Canvass parking lots and other filling stations and garage. identify the car as that involved in the hit-

Return to the accident scene at the same time on and-run accident.
subsequent as and on the same day of the following weeks
to obtain additional witnesses such as delivery men  Search the undercarriage of the suspect
operating on scheduled routes car. Determine also if there is indication of

Follow-up phone calls to garages and dealers of auto parts. disturbance in the grease or dirt adhering

Continue appealing for information through the press, to it.
radio and TV.
   Make a careful investigation for replaced
parts.
 Interview of Suspect
When the suspect is apprehended:

Obtain a signed statement if you can.

Get a full account of suspect's whereabouts and write it
down just in case he refutes in later.
Approach and apprehend the driver of the as soon as his
identity and whereabouts are ascertained.
Place the driver in a defensive position by properly
directed questions upon approach.
 LESSON 5.6

SKIDMARKS AS A TOOL
IN TRAFFIC ACCIDENT
INVESTIGATION
 Skidmarks
Skidmarks Concept
The sudden application of brakes
which results in the locked wheel
condition places great pressure
between the brake shoe and the brake
drum that the frictional force at this
point becomes greater then the
frictional force between the tire and the
road surface. When this condition
exists, the wheels skid.
 Skidmarks as a Tool in Traffic Accident
Investigation
The Following are the principles underlying on skid
marks: as tool in investigation

1. Measurement of skidmarks gives idea on For example, skidmarks 80 feet long were
how fast the car which left these marks was measured at accident scene. A test skid made
going prior to the accident. 20 miles per hour showed 20 long
skidmarks. It was argued in court that with
2. Estimates of speed based on skidmarks skidmarks 20 long from a speed of 20 miles
may lead to convictions or knowing how to per hour, the car must be going 80 miles per
estimate speed correctly may help to keep hour to leave 80 feet skidmarks. The driver
an Innocent person from being convicted. was unjustly convicted. His actual speed
was more nearly half of that, or 40 miles per
hour.
 Other Tire Marks
The investigators' first job is to find out if the mark on the pavement is a skid
mark or another type of tire mark. Thus he must familiarize himself with the
following marks that may be left motor vehicle on a road surface:

Centrifugal Skid Mark

 A marking on a roadway left by a rotating tire and
wheel of a speeding vehicle on a curve when the
speed of the vehicle is above the critical speed of
the curve and the centrifugal force entirely or
partially overcomes the friction between the mass
of the vehicle and its tires and the Surface of the
roadway.
 Impending skid marks
 Marks caused by the forward rotation of the wheels
being slower than the forward movement of the vehicle.
The shadowy beginning of a skid mark along the
approach path of the vehicle is the impending skid mark
(a.ka. as tire shadow marks), while the darker markings
are the skid marks which begins in the impending skid
mark and ends at the point of collision or final rest.

Yawn mark
 A scuffmark made while a vehicle is yawning
the mark made on the road by a rotating tire
which is slipping in a direction parallel to the
axle of the wheel.
Skip mark
 A braking skid mark interrupted at
frequent regular intervals; the skid mark
made by a bouncing wheel on which
brakes keep the wheel from turning.
Compare with gap skid.

Side Skid Mark (Scuff mark)

 It is a roadway marking left by the tire
and wheel of a vehicle sliding sideways
as a result of force other than centrifugal
force.
Gap Skid
A braking skid mark which
is interrupted by release
and reapplication of brakes
or which terminates by
release of brakes before
collision.
Other Marks and Impression Left by a Motor Vehicle either on
the Road Surface or on the Other Motor Vehicle

When a motor vehicle overturned or collided

with another object like another motor vehicle, it
sometimes impresses or leaves marks that may
be used to identity the motor vehicle, if it fled
the accident scene. These impressions or
markings are.
Ruts
A sunken track worn by a
wheel, as in road; hence, a
groove forming a path for
anything.

Gouge
 A groove made by a hard part of a
motor vehicle another car after
sidesweeping each other or it may be
left on surface by a motor vehicle
which overturned then slid on the
surface.
Paint Strips
When a vehicle collided
with other object
sometimes transfers Its
paint to the other object.
Skidmarks as Evidence in Skidmarks Do Not Show
Accident Cases. Skidmarks All of the Speed.
will determining the speed Skidmarks never show all
prior to the accident or
of the speed of a car
collision; show if t vehicle
was traveling in the wrong before the accident
side of the road; indicate if the happened. They show
driver failed to observe the only how far the car
night of way; and also show if would have had to slide to
the driver did not obey a stop in the distance shown
traffic signal. by skidmarks.
 Evidence of Additional Speed
A car is somewhat going faster and often faster is calculated from skidmarks
because in addition to losing speed is sliding the distance shown by the skidmarks,
the car losses some of its speed on one or more of the following ways:

1.Sliding with one or more wheels before 3 Dragging the car as it hits some
any skidmarks begin appear. Dark clear object.
skidmarks do not appear until the tires have
slid far enough to get hot enough to smear 4. Damaging other cars or objects
rubber or scar on the pavement. This is less
true on such materials as gravel and dirt. 5. Sliding other cars or objects along
2. Braking without skidding. Cases that the the way
motor vehicle does not skid particularly:
before sliding begins; during gaps, after
6. Vaulting or bouncing up into the
marks and before the car comes to rest. air.
 How to Estimate the Approximate Speed of Motor Vehicle
in Case Skid Mark is not present?
In many accident of course, other evidence of terrific speed is The following guides the
the WRECKAGE (EXTENT OF DAMAGE), but there are no
skidmarks at all because brakes were not put on hard enough investigator:
to lock the wheels.

1. When brakes are put on just before contact of 3.In any accident in which great damage
vehicles, the skidmarks maybe only two or three was done will skidmarks show more than
feet long and therefore, show a speed of only five small part of the speed, often a very
or six miles per hour. While the wreckage tells minor part of it; but if the skidmarks have
that total speed may have been ten times as great. been rightly identified and measured, it
2. In accident in which most of the speed is lost can be said that the car was going faster
in skidding, the speed calculated from skidmarks than the speed calculated from the
may come close to showing how fast the car was skidmarks, much faster if there was
actually going. Accidents involving pedestrians considerable damage.
are the most common ones of this kind.
Things that Determine Skidding Distance. How far a car will take to
skid or slide to stop when all four wheels are locked depends on many
things. Three of these factors are important, and you must consider
them in every estimate of speeds based on skidmarks: Speed itself is
by far the most important; slipperiness of the pavement; and grade or
slop of the road whether road up or down.

Other Factors that Affect the Skidding. Every driver knows, of course, that
it takes much longer to stop on pavements that are slippery, end that he can
stop more quickly on an upgrade than downgrade road. Of many other
factors on which distance depends, none has had a very great effect. Most
of them will affect a calculated speed by only a few miles per hour. They,
therefore, have a little effect on the speed calculated from the skidmarks
usually not more than a couple of miles per hour. Among those other
factors are the following:
Brake Pedal Pressure
 When wheels are actually slid additional brake pedal
pressure will not make the stop any quick Once the
wheels have been locked and the car is sliding, the
brakes have done all they can in slowing the car and
the grab of the pavement on the tires is what
determines how fast the car will slow down.

Weight of the Car

 Makes a great difference in stopping distance before the
wheels lock, but once they have locked, it makes a very little
difference. It is true that it takes much greater pressure to lock
the wheels on a vehicle when it is heavily loaded than it is
empty. However, when the wheels are once locked, a greater
weight of the vehicle, which gives it greater momentum, also
causes it to press harder an the road surface and therefore,
give it a corresponding greater drag from the pavement.
Tire Tread
 On the most ordinary surfaces, a smooth tire and
one with a deep tread pattern will stop the car in
about the same distance. On some other surfaces,
particularly on ice, a smooth tread s better because
it distributes the weight over a greater area.

Air Pressure
 Makes a very slight difference in
stopping distance. On ice, for
example, soft tire will distribute the
weight a little more and give
somewhat better traction.
Tire Material
 There is a slight difference between
tires made of synthetic and those
made of natural rubber.

Road Surface
 Of surfaces such as mud, snow, and
on ice, equipped with chains have a
better road-gripping capacity. On
some hard pavements, however,
chains may decrease road gripping
capacity.
Direction of Slides
Makes a slight but unimportant difference tire will lengthwise except in materials so soft that it
plows or sinks.

Temperature of the Air and the Road Surface.

Make some Difference
 In general, on ordinary pavements, hot weather
produces longer stopping distance. This is not
necessarily on ice and snow.

Against Head Wind

 A car will slide a little farther from given
speed with a tall wind than against a head
wind, but this is not a matter of great
importance.
 Speed Estimates
For most ordinary purposes, you Sometimes all of the factors
do not have to Consider those tend to give a high estimated
minor factors in establishing speed. In this connection, the
speeds from skidmarks. Because
the minor factors are neglected, we skidmarks do not show all of
can not calculate speeds precisely. the speed and therefore, the
We only estimate them. Some of probable actual speed is still
the minor factors would tend to greater than your estimate.
give a higher speed and others a
lower speed, and they would partly
balance or cancel out.
 Facts Needed
Good estimate of speed is based on certain facts that come from observations and
measurements at the scene of the accidents. The accuracy of the estimate depends
upon the accuracy of these observations and measurements.

Length of Skidmark. Consider the  Are there any gaps in the skidmarks? Be sure there are
following: gaps caused by a release of brake pedal pressure and not
skids caused by bounced.

Be sure they are skidmarks-not  What is the length of each skidmarks around any curves?
It may not make straight from beginning to the end in
just tire marks. the shortest line. You may want to consider two separate
lengths for each Skidmark. One of these is based on the
Did all wheels slide or just some part of the Skid mark you can positively identify. It gives
you speed which will be minimum beyond reasonable
of them? It makes little doubt. The other is a possible skidmark which will give
you a more likely speed. The first is all you can use in
difference if tire is sliding court, the second is often much useful in figuring out
forward or sidewise just what did happen in the accident.
Use the length that the wheels skid, not the tire
slid. Dual tires which leave two marks are
considered as one wheel, and the Skid mark length
is counted if either tire on the wheel leaves this
mark.
There are two ways of figuring the
length of a slide if all on the same kind
of pavement. These are
 Straight Line
A slide is considered straight if both rear wheel skidmarks do not go
off to one side of the front wheel skidmarks.

 Use the length of the longest Skid mark left by Therefore, we are usually safe in
any wheel minus gaps in it. This method is
possible because all wheels slide about the saying that all wheels are dragging
same distance. We know that the brakes as much as if there were sliding
definitely have been applied throughout the wheel skid applies to motorcycles,
entire distance of the longest Skid mark.
trucks, truck and trailer
 If one wheel does not slide as far as the others, combinations, and buses as well as
still t was about to slide when the others began.
The drag on the pavement by this wheel is ordinary motor vehicles
about the same just before it begins to slide as
when it is actually sliding. It may even be
greater.
 Spin
A slide is considered a spin if both rear wheel skidmarks do get off to one side of the
front wheel skidmarks.

 Take the length of each skidmarks  Use this method only when there is about the
minus gaps. Add the Skid mark length same weight on front and rear wheels; that is
for all wheels and divide the number of usually for ordinary cars, motorcycles, and light
trucks with trailers or heavily loaded trucks
wheels. having duel tires on the rear wheels. Uneven
weight with a spin requires special calculations.
 This method is necessary in the case of
the spins because some of the wheels  This method gives you a figure for the sliding
slid much farther than other; one end of distance of the vehicle. It is not necessary to
the car may practically stand still while compute it more accurately than to the nearest
the other sweeps around it. foot. For this length you may have two figures,
one a positive distance and one a possible
distance.
 Unfortunately, many investigations are carelessly made. For example,
investigators may;

Fail to show whether all wheel slid.  Show only an overall length without
separate measurements for each wheel.
Fail to include in the sliding This usually includes the wheel base of
distance a skid shown by a shadow the car with the result that the sliding
as well as that more clearly shown distance appears to be length longer than
it really is.
by the smear of the hot tire.
 Fail to note whether the skidmarks are
Neglect to note whether they are straight or a spin.
gaps in any of the skidmarks.
 Measure straight across from beginning
to the end of a Curve skidmarks rather
than around its length.
If the facts are not all there, assumptions should have to be
made about the distance the car slid. For legal purposes, you
may assume only what may be true beyond reasonable doubt.
Hence, poor observations and measurements often leave you
little value to go on.

Nevertheless, reasonable assumptions regarding

conditions which more definitely observed in
investigations may be very helpful in coming to a
conclusion about what probably happened.
 Coefficient of Friction or Drag Factor
It is the measure of the maximum frictional resistance of pavements. It is equal to
the force exerted when the wheels are skidding divided by the weight of the car.

 Slipperiness of surface must also be known Principle of Computation For

in order to calculate speeds from example, the drag of the pavement
skidmarks. We tell what this slipperiness by
a number usually decimal less than 1.00. on the sliding tires of an
When any object is sliding, the surface it automobile is 3,000 Ibs.. The
slid on puts a friction drag on sliding tire automobile weights 4,000 Ibs. The
that slows the e A slippery movement
creates a small friction drag and an abrasive
number representing the
pavement a big drag. If we divide the slipperiness of the pavement, or its
amount of friction drag in pounds by the friction drag, is then 3,000 divided
weight of the car in pounds, we get the by 4,000 or 0.75
number the describes the slipperiness.
 This friction drag factor or slipperiness number is called technically the
"COEFFICIENT OF FRICTION." You can measure the drag factor of a pavement by
making a test skid which tells how far a car slides on that pavement while stopping
from a known speed.
 The drag factor or coefficient of friction can be determined by use of a formula. If we
let "S” stand for the speed miles per hour from which the test skid is made and "D”
the distance in feet that car slides in coming to stop, then the drag factor, which we
call "F, the formula will be:
The "30" is the formula because speed is give per hour and the distance in
feet (transformation of feet second to miles per hour). It is called a constant
because it stayed the same in all problems for which the formula is used.
Thus, to find slipperiness number, F, we multiply this speed by itself and
then divided by 30 times the stopping distance. You do not need to carry the
division out more than two places to the right of the decimal point.
 Applying the Principle of Computation
On a test to measure pavement slipperiness, a car was stopped in 40
ft. from 30 miles per hour.

Substituting these
numbers for the letters
representing them in the
formula, and doing the
anithmetic involved, we
have:
It is very important that the test skids to measure pavement
slipperiness be correctly made. You are unlikely to do it right
without special experience.
At least two skids are desirable. Compute the slipperiness
separately for each. Unless these are within 0.05 each other
friction calculated from any of several test skids made on the
same paving. This is necessary if you want to be sure beyond
reasonable doubt of calculated speeds.
Test skids using the same car that was in the accident are the
best. They thus take care of some of the minor factor such as
the weight of the car, the tire material, the tread pattern, tire
pressure and therefore, make the estimate more reliable.
 Grade or slope (Gradient)
This is the degree of inclination or declination of the road. It is quicker to stop
uphill than on level road and downhill road.

Grade is measured by a number usually less than 1.00. The

measurement is the number of the feet that the road rises or
falls for each feet of the horizontal distance.
To find: divide the vertical rise or fall by the horizontal
distance. It is not necessary to carry these division more than
two places to the right of the decimal.
Use this formula: f=horizontal distance
vertical rise or fall
Possible ranges of pavement Drag Factors for rubber
tires. The drag factor or coefficient of friction of a
pavement of a give description may vary considerably
because quite a variety of road surfaces maybe described
in the Some of these variations are due to the weight of
the vehicles, air pressure in the tire; tread design, air
temperature, speed and some other factors.
 Reaction Time
This is the distance travelled before applying the brakes. It is
computed by:

Divide seconds in an hour Time to get foot off the

(3,600) into feet in a mile accelerator and slam it on the
(5,280) 1,467. brakes 3/4 of a second on the
To determine distance you will average. The age of the
travel in one second, multiply driver should be considered.
1.467 (1.47 or 1.50) times the X speed = length in feet
speed at which you are covered before brake works.
traveling.
 Brake Tests
The brakes of the car can be tested when the skids are made. If the brakes are
inadequate, the operator should advised that he may attempt to demonstrate their
adequacy.

In most states (U.S.), a vehicle  Brake tests should not be conducted when
the road surface is wet. Tests on wet surfaces
traveling at 20 mp within the may result in personal injuries to by standers
following minimum distances: or others concerned in the tests The vehicle
Two-wheel breaks pedal: vehicle should be examined to ascertain ift complies
with legal safety requirements and whether
should stop within 45 ; four-wheel its braking system is in operating order.
brakes foot pedal: vehicle should
 Use of Decelerometers. These are devices
stop within 30 ; and hand brakes: which hold their readings and indicate on a
vehicle should stop within 75 ft. clocklike face braking efficiency of the car
being tested.
 Procedure Followed by the Philippine National Police
(PNP)
Members of the PNP when considering skid mark as
evidence observe the following:

 The officer submits as evidence in a Some police departments have

case the measurements of the skidmarks their officers skid a vehicle to a
and the Court interprets the facts in the stop from the legal speed limit, if
light of other evidence: Some courts this can be done safely, and
require the assistance of an expert
measurements should be accomplished compare the skidmarks with those
by two men; and sketches and in the accident.
photographs with measurements Some would draw conclusions
indicated should be made soon after the
accident. from tests based on physical
calculation.
 Should meet legal standards
Officer measuring the skidmarks and the distances
should verify each other’s measurements so that
they can corroborate each other's testimony in court.
 Evidence should be presented to show that the
skidmarks were made by the suspect car.
Witnesses should testify in court.
 Basic Principles in Calculating Speeds from
Skidmarks

Energy and vehicle speed. 20 kph- 40

An automobile moving a
speed possesses energy. As 30 kph 90o
the speed of the vehicle
increase the resulting 40 kph 160
energy developed also
increases as the square of
the of the increase in speed.
Examples:
Stopping a Motor Vehicle

Whenever a moving vehicle

stopped, the energy which it
possesses at that time must
expended or spent. It is only
when most or all of the
vehicle's energy is expended
through skidding of tires that
a fairly accurate calculation
may be made of the vehicle's
speed before the accident.
 Test Runs
In making calculations for speeds from
skidmarks, is often necessary to conduct
one or more test runs, using the vehicle
involved in the accident or, if it cannot be
driven, another vehicle of similar
characteristics may be used.
Conditions should be the same as those The length of each skid mark should be
existing when the accident occurred. measured.
The character of the road, whether wet
or dry, should be the same. if a brake detonator is available, the total
braking distance should be accurately
Conduct tests on the same road surface determined using such equipment,
and in the same direction. mechanically or electrically operated.
Vehicle's speedometer should be It is advisable to conduct two or three
checked, and any difference from tests at the selected speed. The test of
accurate calibrations should be noted. longest braking distance which favors
the defendant is used in calculation.
A speed consistent with safety, such as
20 or 30 miles per hour, should be To avoid possible differences in the
selected for the test run. application of brakes by the driver, it is
advisable to have the driver of the
Brakes should be applied suddenly and accidents vehicle drive the car in the test
as hard as possible when the car is runs.
moving at the selected test speed.
 Speed Calculation
 If vehicle stopped solely by skidding, it is possible to calculate the speed of the
vehicle at the beginning of the skid by using the formula based on the
principle that skidding or braking distances vary as the square of the speed.

Formulas Used in finding Speed

Estimates. The following are some of
the formulas being used in estimating
speed (mph):
Where: S speed (mph); F = coefficient
of friction (drag factor); f grade (1, 2, 4)
or super elevation; and D distance (feet).
 When accident vehicle can not be driven: When the vehicle is damaged that it
cannot be driven, part of the vehicle's energy is expended in damaging the car and
the object struck.

A calculation of speed from skidmarks left under these

circumstances gives a speed based only on the amount
of energy expended in the skidding.
Consequently, the resulting speed value may be
considerably less than the actual pre-accident speed,
since it is not possible to determine how much farther
the vehicle would have skidded there been no collision.
 Sample Problem
A driver of a Toyota Tamaraw FX while traversing down
along Marcos Highway suddenly steps on the brake when
boy ran across the vehicle's path. In the process, the vehicle
n before hitting the boy. When the skid mark was measured,
it yields long markings. Applying the formulas for speed
calculations, find approximate speed of the Toyota Tamaraw
FX before it skidded 1.)skid mark of the motor vehicle
when tested at 30 mph is 35 ft. and 2.)vertical fall of the
highway is 1.5 t. The solution will be:
Compute first for the Drag Factor. Use the figures
used during the test skid: