Chapter 1

DEFINITION AND
COMPOSITION OF SOIL
 What is Soil?

Soil is a natural and dynamic body formed on the land

surface and made up of porous mixture of inorganic
and organic materials whose composition and
properties influence the growth of plants.

Importance of studying soil:

a. Important resource of the country
b. holds and purify water
c. Serves as growth medium for plants
d. It is where food, clothing, shelter, and
medicines are derived
 Soil Science
- deals with the study of soil as a natural resource
on the surface of the earth which includes soil
formation, classification and mapping, physical,
chemical, biological and fertility properties in relation
to the management for crop production
1. Fields of specialization in Soil Science
1. Soil chemistry
- Interactions of solid, liquid, and gaseous phases
or components of soil
2. Soil mineralogy
- Structural chemistry of the solid components of
soil.
3. Soil microbiology
- Soil biochemical reaction carried out primarily by
microorganisms.
4. Soil physics
- characteristics, processes, or reactions of a soil
caused by physical forces
5. Soil fertility
- quality of a soil to provide optimum level
of nutrients for plant growth
6. Soil genesis
 referred to as pedology when combined with soil
classification
 covers factors and processes of soil formation.
 bridges chemistry, physics, geology, biology, climatology,
geography, anthropology, and agriculture.
2. Approaches to the study of Soil Science:

a. Edaphological approach

- Study of soil in relation to higher plants

- Soil properties vs plant growth
- Variability of soil productivity
- Methods of conserving and improving
productivity

b. Pedological Approach:
- Origin and classification of soils
- soil as a natural body
3. Soil components
 a. Mineral matter (45 %)
- extremely variable in size (sand, silt and
clay)
sand - 0.02-2.0 mm – feel gritty when
rubbed between the fingers; not
sticky
silt - 0.002-0.02 mm - feels smooth but
not sticky even when wet
clay - < 0.002 mm S – adhere together
to form sticky mass when wet and
hard clods when dry
 c. Organic matter (5 %)
- consists of a wide range of organic
(carbonaceous) substances including
a. living organisms (the living biomass, b.
carbonaceous remains of organisms which
once occupied the soil
c. Organic compounds produced by
current and past metabolism in the soil
- Over periods of time organic matter is lost
from the soil as carbon dioxide produced by
microbial respiration
- repeated additions of new plant and/or
animal residues are necessary to maintain soil
organic matter
 c. Soil air (20-30 %)
- the amount and composition of air in a soil
- occupies those soil pore spaces not filled
with water
- composition varies greatly from place to
place in the soil
- generally has higher moisture content than
the atmosphere; the relative humidity of the
soil air approaches to 100% unless the soil is
dry
- the content of CO2 is usually much higher
and that of oxygen lower, than contents of
these gases found in the atmosphere
 d. Soil water (20-30 %)
- also called soil solution because it contains
hundreds of dissolved organic and inorganic
substances
- serve as constantly replenished dilute nutrient
solution bringing dissolved nutrient elements
to plant roots
- act as a universal solvent, nutrient carrier,
and nutrient in itself
- stabilizes soil temperature
 Soil Components

SOIL

SOLID LIQUID GAS

% by
VOLUME 50% 25% 25%

INORGANIC ORGANIC
40%
5 5%

SAND & SILT CLAY HUMUS

Primary Min. Second Colloids.
(quartz, ary Min. Life of
feldspar, (silicate soils
mica, etc. clays,
hydrous
oxide,
colloids)
 Approximate Composition

LIQUID GASES
25% 25%

SOIL SOLUTION SOIL AIR

WATER AND SALTS SOIL AIR ATMOS. AIR
CATIONS ANIONS % %
(Ca ,
2+
(HCO3-, RH ~ 100 ~
Mg 2+ , SO4-2, Cl-,
Na+, K+, N2 78.6 78.3
H+, NO3-,
O2 20.0 21.0
HPO4-2,
Al 3+
) CO2 0.5 0.03
H2PO4- )
Ar 0.9 0.94
4. Elemental Composition of the Earth’s Crust

 The outermost portion of the earth

 Earth’s crust: about 16 km depth
 Soil chemical composition is derived from the earth’s
mantle
 Main source of the material from which inorganic soil
is derived
EARTH’S CRUST-COMPOSITION (16km deep)

Element % by Ionic % by
or Ion Weight Radius Å1 Volume
O-2 46.6 1.40 93.77
Si4+ 27.7 0.42 0.86
Al3+ 8.1 0.51 0.47
Fe2+ 5.0 0.74 0.43
Ca2+ 3.6 0.99 1.03
Mg2+ 2.1 0.66 0.29
Na+ 2.8 0.95 1.32
K+ 2.6 1.22 1.83
---------------------------------------
-------------------------
Σ 98.5 ~100
Element % by weight
Ti 0.50
H 0.14
P 0.11
Mn 0.09
S 0.03
-----------------------------------

1
1Å = 10-8 CM
5. The Essential Mineral Elements and
their Available Forms

- of the elements in the biosphere and

detected in plant tissue, only certain
elements has been determined to be
essential
Essential Nutrient Criteria
a) A deficiency of an element makes it difficult or
impossible for the plant to complete a vegetative
or reproductive stage of development
b) A deficiency can be prevented or corrected by
supplying the element
c) An element must perform specific function in
plants
Ionic forms of the essential elements taken up from
the soil
Nutrient Chemical Ionic forms
element symbol absorbed by plants

---------------------------------------------------------
----------------------
MACRONUTRIENTS
Nitrogen N NO3-, NH4+
Phosphorus P H2PO4-, HPO4=
Potassium K K+
Calcium Ca Ca++
Magnesium Mg Mg++
Sulfur S SO4=
Ionic forms of the essential elements taken up from
the soil
Nutrient Chemical Ionic forms
element symbol absorbed by
plants
------------------------------------------
MICRONUTRIENTS
Manganese Mn Mn++
Iron Fe Fe++
Boron B BO3=
Zinc Zn Zn++
Copper Cu Cu++
Molybdenum Mo MoO4=
Chloride Cl Cl-
 Chapter 2

COMPOSITION, GENESIS
AND DEVELOPMENT
 Introduction
 Rocks and minerals weather when they disintegrate and
decompose

 The decomposition products precipitate and crystallize

to form new minerals which largely constitute the clay
fractions of soils

 Ionic forms of simple soluble products are sorbed by

clay particles, absorbed by plants, or lost with drainage
water from the soil solum

 Soils that form in similar climates from different kinds

of parent rock may differ in nutrients, in depth, in
amount of clay and in color
6.2. Mode of formation of igneous rocks

a. Intrusive rocks
- also known as plutonic rocks
- the result of crystallization from a magma that
did not reach the earth’s surface

b. Extrusive rocks
- also known as volcanic rocks
- includes those igneous rocks that reached the
earth’s surface in a molten or partly molten
state
- lava flows that pour from a vent or fracture in
the earths’s crust tend to cool and crystallize
rapidly resulting in finer grain size; if
cooling is rapid, resulting rock may be a glass
6.3. Identification of igneous rocks:
1. based on grain size
a. Coarse-grained (phaneritic) – results in slow
cooling of magma at great depths (ex. Granite,
diorite, gabbro)
b. Fine-grained (aphanitic)- results in rapid cooling
of molten materials (ex. Rhyolite, andesite, basalt)

2. based on mineral composition

a, silicic/felsic (acidic)- increasing silica
content (≈75% SiO2) – examples: granite and
rhyolite,
b. Intermediate – ex. Diorite and andesite
c. Mafic (basic) – decreasing silica content
(≈ 45% SiO2)- ex. Gabbro and basalt
3. color of rock
a. Light- high in quartz (ex. Granite and
rhyolite)
b. Medium gray/green- intermediate silica
content (ex. Diorite , andesite)
c. Dark gray to black – high CaO, FeO, and
MgO (ex. Gabbro and basalt)
6.4. Examples of Igneous Rocks and major mineral
components

Igneous Rocks Mineral components

1. Granite quarts, K-feldspar, biotite
2. Diorite plagioclase, amphibole, qtz,
3. Rhyolite K-feldspar, quartz, biotite
4. Gabbro pyroxene, plagioclase, olivine
5. Andesite plagioclase, amphibole, qtz
6. Basalt pyroxene, plagioclase, olivine
7. Obsidian volcanic glass
8. Volcanic tuff fragmental volcanic rocks
Igneous rocks
granite gabbro

rhyolite basalt
6.5. Examples of Sedimentary Rocks

1. Sandstone (1/16 to 2 mm)

2. Siltstone (1/256 to 1/16 mm)
3. Shale (claystone) (<1/256mm)
4. Conglomerate (>2mm)
5. Limestone (CaCO3)
6. Gypsum (CaSO4.2H2O)
7. Chert (SiO2-quartz)
Sedimentary rocks
limeston
e

conglomerate
6.6. Examples of metamorphic rocks
Pre-existing rock Metamorphic Rock
Equivalent
1. Granite Gneiss
2. Basalt Schists
3. Sandstone Quartzite
4. Limestone Marble
5. Shale Slate
6. Conglomerate Meta-conglomerate
Metamorphic rocks
marble slate

quartzite
gneiss
gneiss
gneiss
gneiss
Rock cycle
6.6. Primary vs Secondary minerals

Mineral: naturally occurring chemical element

or compound formed as a product of
inorganic processes.

Two groups of minerals -

a. primary minerals
b. secondary minerals
Primary minerals

- formed at temperatures and/or pressure

higher than that normally encountered at the
earth’s surface (one atmosphere and <100C).
e.g. quartz, feldspar, mica, amphibole,
apatite, olivine
- have not been altered chemically since they
formed as molten lava solidified
- Components of igneous and metamorphic rocks.
Secondary minerals

- form under conditions of temperature and

pressure found at the earth’s surface by the
weathering of preexisting minerals.

- crystallized products of the chemical

breakdown and/or alteration of primary
minerals
e.g. clay minerals,limonite,
gibbsite,calcite,dolomite, gypsum,rock
phosphate
calcite quartz
 chlorapatite

orthoclase

phosphorite
 kaolin

diamond
6.7. Weathering
- all physical and chemical changes produced in
rocks, at or near the earth’s surface, by
atmospheric agents

- the disintegration of primary (original) minerals

and the formation of some of those dissolved
materials into new secondary minerals

- only when a solid rock mass is disintegrated to

unconsolidated material is a soil formed

- A mixture of dead vegetation, clay, rock

fragments of sand and silt size particles produces
soil.
2 types of weathering
1. Physical weathering- disintegration or breakdown
of rocks and minerals into smaller sizes
a. Exfoliation due to temperature variation
b. Disintegration by water
c. Grinding by ice
d. abrasion by wind
e. Other processes and agents
2. Chemical weathering
- the most active and effective weathering
process
- the main processes involved is the chemical
decomposition of primary minerals and synthesis
of new minerals
- Chemical weathering produces clays on which
vegetation can grow.
a. Hydrolysis
b. Hydration
c. Oxidation
d. Carbonation
e. Solution
1. Hydrolysis –Replacement of the basic ions by the
hydrogen, with consequent collapse and
disintegration of the structure.

KAlSi3O8 + H+ HAlSi3O8 + K+

2. Hydration – association of water molecules or of

hydroxyl groups with minerals, often without
actual decomposition or modification of the mineral
itself.
CaSO4 (s) + 2H2O (g,l) CaSO4 . 2H2O
3. Oxidation – removal of one or more electrons
from an ion or an atom.

4FeO(s) + O2(g) + 2H2O (l) 4FeO(OH) (s)

Ferrous ferric
goethite

4. Carbonation – minerals are replaced by

carbonates. Introducing carbon dioxide into
water.

CO2(g) + H2O (l) H2CO3 (aq) H+(aq) +

HCO3 (aq)
5. Solution – dissolving of simple salts as carbonates
and chlorides.

CaCO3 + 2H+ H2CO3 + Ca++

.8. Factors Influencing Soil Formation
LORPT
1. Parent Material
- Geological or organic precursors to the soil
2. Relief- topography
3. Climate
- Primarily precipitation and temperature
4. Organisms
- Especially vegetation, microbes, and soil
animals
5. Time
1. Parent material-inorganic (rocks and minerals) and
organic material where soils may originate.

Types of parent material

a. residual-bedrocks such as igneous,
sedimentary, and metamorphic rocks.

b. transported-loose materials like sand, silt and clay

deposits where soils developed (alluvium,
colluvium, ash, glacial drift, dune).
 - influence soil formation by their different rates
of weathering’, the nutrients they contain for
plant use, and the particle sizes they contain

- the less developed a soil is, the greater will be

the effect of the parent material on the
properties of the soil
- clay formation is favored by high percentage of
decomposable dark minerals and by less quartz

- soils from weakly cemented sandstones will be

sandy; soils from shales will be shallow and fine-
textured
Parent Material--Transported
Agent Deposited in or by Name of deposit
----------------------------------------
Water Stream Alluvium
Lake Lacustrine
Ocean Marine
----------------------------------------
Ice Ice Till, Moraine
Melt water Alluvium,
Lacustrine
----------------------------------------
Wind Wind Loess (silt)
Dune (sand)
Volcanic ash
----------------------------------------
Gravity Gravity Colluvium
 2. Topography -refers to soil’s position in the
landscape.

Summit
Shoulder

Backslope

Footslope
(1) Summit and (2) Shoulder
- develop horizons the fastest;
(3) Backslope
- soil develop slower because:
a. rainfall will run off this slope position
faster,
b. there will be more soil erosion,
c. and there will be less leaching
(4) Footslope
- soils will collect sediment from upslope that
can bury the horizons and slow down their
development
3. Climate
- components that strongly influence soil
development:
a. temperature -weathering of rocks and
minerals and biochemical reaction increases with
increasing temperature.
- for every 10 0C rise in temperature, the
rate of biological reactions more than doubles; if
warm temp and abundant water are present at the
same time, the processes of weathering,
leaching and plant growth will be maximized
b. precipitation or rainfall-with more rainfall,
greater weathering and greater leaching
therefore faster rate of soil development
4. Biota: Living organisms
- Organic matter accumulation, biochemical
weathering, profile mixing, nutrient cycling, and
aggregate stability are all enhanced by the
activities of organisms in the soil
- vegetative cover reduces erosion rates
Role of natural vegetation:
- the kind of vegetation that dominates the
landscape also give rise to soil bodies with varying
soil characteristics ( grass land vs. forest land)
- cation cycling by trees- conifer trees allow more
of the base-forming cations to be lost through
leaching; more strongly acid soil developed under
coniferous trees than deciduous trees
Difference in the soil profile under grassland versus forest vegetation
5. Time
- the length of time for the soil to form.

- It is approximated by the time since the site

for soil development became stable (no
significant erosion and deposition).

- Age of a soil is not considered in years but how

much development the soil has undergone.

- time zero- point in time at which pedologically

catastrophic event is completed, initiating a
new cycle of soil development
 - OM will accumulate to form a dark-colored A-
horizon in a decade or two
- formation of B-horizon would likely take
centuries
- accumulation of silicate clays usually becomes
noticeable after thousands of years
- mature, highly weathered deep soils would take
hundreds of thousands of years

Young soil vs mature soils - not referring to the

age of soils in years but by the degree of
weathering and profile development
Time as a factor of soil formation
Catenas
◦ When soils are developed on the same parent material and the
soils only differ on the basis of drainage due to variations in
relief
Chronosequence
◦ A sequence of related soils that differ in certain properties
primarily as a result of time as a soil-forming process
Lithosequence
◦ A group of related soils that differ as a result of parent material
Climosequence
◦ A sequence of soils that differ as a result of changes in climatic
regimes (temperature and precipitation)
Biosequence
◦ A group of related soils that differ primarily due to variation in
kinds and numbers of plants and soil organisms
6.9. Soil Development
- There are processes involved in the formation of
soils and the development of vertical variation in
soil bodies. The soil horizons are developed as a
result of four basic kinds of changes in the soil
namely:
a. Transformations
b. additions
c. Removals
d. Transfers

- These four kinds of changes include a wide range

of processes and each kind of change affects
many constituents in the soil
6.9.1.Processes of Mineral Soil Horizon Formation

a. Additions - H2O, organic matter,air, soil

particles, salt
b. Losses - H2O, organic matter, CO2 ,
nutrients by plant removal
c. Transformations - Changes to soil structure,
development of clay minerals, weathering of
minerals to elements, chemical Rxn
d. Translocations - movement from one horizon to
another of O.M. clay, water, iron, &
nutrients in colloidal size, (very small
particles) - clay films on peds are evidence of
this translocation = clay (film) coating
Major processes in soil-profile development (after Simonson)

ADDITION-precipitation
w/ ions and solid part.;
organic matter
Ground Surface
TRANSFORMATIONS
Organic matter humus
Primary minerals hydrous oxides; clay; ions,
H2SiO4

TRANSFER TRANSFER
Humus, clays, Ions, H4SiO4
ions,
H4SiO4

REMOVALS
IONS, H4SiO4
6.10. The soil profile

“And the soil we pick up to feel consisting of sand,

silt, clay particles and decomposed organic matter”

soil profile – a vertical section of the soil from the

surface through all its horizons
Soil Profile Symbols

O - Horizon dominated by organic matter.

Oi – slightly decomposed organic horizon (fibric)
Oe - intermediately decomposed organic horizon (Hemic)
Oa - highly decomposed organic horizon (sapric)

A - Organic-rich, mineral horizon at/or adjacent to the surface.

E - Mineral horizon of maximum eluviation.

B - Mineral horizon of maximum illuviation and formed beneath an

O, A, or E horizon.

C - Weathered parent material.

R - Underlying consolidated bedrock.

Relative age of soil

Young soil: A-Bw-C and/or R

slightly to moderately weathered
Mature soil: A-Bt-C
moderately to highly weathered
Senile soil: A-Bo--C
high to extremely weathered
•Have ochric and
none diagnostic
horizons
•Typical profile
sequence would be
A, C or A, Bw
and C
•Include soils on
steep slopes,
flood plains and
sand dunes
•Soils that have
little or slight
development and
properies that
reflect their
parent materials
 • formed in semi arid to
humid areas that have a clay
enriched and nutrient
enriched subsoil (argillic
horizon)
•Have the potential to be
very productive if conserved,
but can also be degraded
rapidly if eroded
•Diagnostic horizon features
are the ochric epipedon and
the argillic horizon
•Typical profile sequence is
A, E, Bt and C

Mature soil
 -Only in the tropics
- diagnostic feature is the oxic
horizon
-Intensely weathered, resulting in
colors that are yellow to red from
the accumulation of large amounts
of iron oxides
-Clayey texture but the ability to
retain water is low as the clay
fraction consists of iron oxides
and kaolinite
-Frequently do not have very
distinct horizons and are very
deep
-Typical horizon sequence A, Bo1,
Bo 2

Senile soil
END