PHOTOSYNTHESIS

(Light and Dark Reactions)

and RESPIRATION
ANLY JOHN G. CAIMOSO IVAN JHON C. ANAM
JOHN DARYL C. CABAGUA MIKE A. CABANA
STEPHEN L. CADAO DEAULLY P. HORTILANO
 INTRODUCTION
Without the energy of sunlight, life as we know it could
not exist. Perhaps you have experienced one of the painful
effects of the sun’s energy – sunburn. Sunburn happens, in
part, because your cells cannot directly use the sun’s
abundant energy. As you have learned, most autotrophs
can use the sun’s energy.
 The process by which sunlight is converted to a usable
form of the energy is called photosynthesis. Organisms
capable of photosynthesis evolved about three billion
years ago. Today, photosynthesis supports most of the life
on earth.
Autotrophs that perform photosynthesis contain
chemicals called pigments. A pigment is a molecule that
absorbs certain wavelength and reflects others.
 Certain pigments in autotrophs are essential for
photosynthesis. The most common and important of this,
photosynthetic pigment is called chlorophyll. Chlorophyll
absorbs violet, blue, and red light – the wavelength that provide
energy for photosynthesis. Because chlorophyll does not absorb
green light but rather reflects it. Most plants look green.
In any autotrophs the chlorophyll and other pigment are
located in specialized organelles called chloroplast. A
chloroplast is an organelle that performs photosynthesis.
 During the photosynthesis, autotrophs use the sun’s
energy to make carbohydrate molecules from water and
carbon dioxide, releasing oxygen as a byproduct. The
process of photosynthesis can be summed up in the
following chemical equation:

Light Energy
6CO2 + 6H2O------ C6H12O6 + 6O2
DEVELOPMENT OF THE
IDEA

The study of photosynthesis began in 1771

with observations made by the English
clergyman and scientist Joseph Priestley.
Priestley had burned a candle in a closed
container until the air within the container could
no longer support combustion.
 He then placed a sprig of mint plant in the
container and discovered that after several days
the mint had produced some substance (later
recognized as oxygen) that enabled the confined
air to again support combustion.
 In the year 1779 the Dutch physician named
Jan Ingenhousz expanded upon Priestley’s work,
showing that the plant had to be exposed to light if
the combustible substance (i.e., oxygen) was to be
restored. He also demonstrated that this process
required the presence of the green tissues of the
plant.
 In 1782 it was demonstrated that the
combustion-supporting gas (oxygen) was
formed at the expense of another gas, or “fixed
air,” which had been identified the year before
as carbon dioxide.
 Gas-exchange experiments in 1804 showed
that the gain in weight of a plant grown in a
carefully weighed pot resulted from the uptake
of carbon, which came entirely from absorbed
carbon dioxide, and water taken up by plant
roots; the balance is oxygen, released back to
the atmosphere.
 Almost half a century passed before the
concept of chemical energy had developed
sufficiently to permit the discovery (in 1845)
that light energy from the sun is stored as
chemical energy in products formed during
photosynthesis.
PHOTOSYNTHESI
S
 Photosynthesis derived from the Greek words
“phos” meaning light and “sunthesis” meaning
putting together.
 Photosynthesis is the biological process by which
the energy of sunlight is absorbed and used to
power the formation of organic compounds from
carbon dioxide and water.
PHOTOSYNTHESI
S
 Photosynthesis is the process by which plants,
some bacteria and protistans used the energy from
sunlight to produce glucose from carbon dioxide
and water.
 The process by which green plants and certain
other organisms transform light energy into
chemical energy.
PHOTOSYNTHESI
S
 The process by which the plants produces its own
food.
 Photosynthesis is the ultimate source of all human
kind’s food and oxygen, whereas fossilized
photosynthetic fuels provide 87% of the world’s
energy.
PHOTOSYNTHESI
S
 PHOTOSYNTHETIC PROCESS
The photosynthetic process is divided into
two stages: absorption of light energy and
carbon fixation. These are known as the
light phase and dark phase, respectively.
1.Light Absorption- chlorophyll- pigment molecules
absorption, or trap, light energy from the sun.
2.Carbon Fixation- carbon fixation or carbon
assimilation, involves using the energy contained in the
ATP( Adenosine Triphosphate) and NADPH
(Nicotinomide- Adenine Dinucleotide Phosphate) to
drive reactions that form organic compounds, such as
starch and sugars, from the simple molecules of carbon
dioxide and water.
3. Splitting of Water- one important outcome of the
photosynthetic reaction is that light energy splits the
water molecule so that one of its components atoms,
oxygen, is released as molecular oxygen and serves to
replenish the atmospheric oxygen supply, which would
other wise be depleted rapidly by respiration processes
of organism and by the burning of substances.
Factors affecting the rate of photosynthesis
• The main factors are light intensity, carbon dioxide
concentration and temperature, known as limiting factors.
• As light intensity increases, the rate of the light-dependent
reaction, and therefore photosynthesis generally, increases
proportionately. As light intensity is increased however,
the rate of photosynthesis is eventually limited by some
other factor. Chlorophyll is used in both photosystems. The
wavelength of light is also important. PSI absorbs energy
most efficiently at 700 nm and PSII at 680 nm. Light with a
high proportion of energy concentrated in these
wavelengths will produce a high rate of photosynthesis.
Factors affecting the rate of photosynthesis
• An increase in the carbon dioxide concentration
increases the rate at which carbon is incorporated into
carbohydrate in the light-independent reaction and so
the rate of photosynthesis generally increases until
limited by another factor.
• Photosynthesis is dependent on temperature. It is a
reaction catalysed by enzymes. As the enzymes
approach their optimum temperatures the overall rate
increases. Above the optimum temperature the rate
begins to decrease until it stops.
LIGHT AND DARK REACTIONS

We have seen the photosynthesis have two

phases, the light reactions, which are directly
dependent on light energy, and the dark reactions,
which can occur in the absence of light. This
division was first suggested by observations that
rate-limiting step in plant photosynthesis is some
step that can take place in the dark.
 When photosynthetic organisms are subjected to
intermittent illumination with very short flashes of
light (milliseconds or less) followed by dark
intervals of varying duration, the maximum O2
evolution after a single light flash of 10-5 s (one
hundred-thousandths second) can be realized only
if it is followed by a much dark period, about 0.06 s
(six hundredths second) or more.
 Today, we know that the light reactions of
photosynthesis are primarily responsible for
converting light energy into chemical energy in the
form of ATP and NADPH, whereas the dark
reactions involve the utilization of the chemical
energy of ATP and NADPH to bring about the
reduction of carbon dioxide and hexose and other
products.
LIGHT AND DARK REACTIONS
LIGHT REACTIONS
- Requires light
- Occurs in chloroplasts (in thylakoid)
- Chlorophyll (thylakoid) traps energy from the light
- Light excites electron (e-)
o Kicks e- negative out of chlorophyll to an electron transport
chain
o Electron transport chain is a series of proteins in thylakoid
membrane.
LIGHT REACTIONS
- Energy lost along electron transport chain
- Lost energy used to recharge ATP from ADP
- NADPH produced from e- transport chain
o Stores energy until transfers to stroma.
o Plays important role in light-independent reaction.

- Total by product: ATP, NADPH, O2.

DARK REACTIONS
- Does not require light
- Calvin Cycle
o Occurs in stroma of chloroplasts.

o Requires CO2

o Uses ATP and NADP as fuel to run

o Makes glucose sugar from CO2 and Hydrogen.

- Energy + 6CO2 + 6H2O------ C6H12O6 + 6O2

- End products of the dark reactions include starch and sucrose.

CELLULAR RESPIRATION
• Cellular respiration is a process that occurs in the mitochondria of all
organisms. In this process, both plants and animals break down simple
sugars into carbon dioxide and water and release energy in the form of
adenosine triphosphate (ATP). The ATP is used for all the processes that
occur within a cell that need energy.
• Cellular respiration or aerobic respiration is a series of chemical reactions
which begin with the reactants of sugar in the presence of oxygen to
produce carbon dioxide and water as waste products. This process occurs in
the mitochondria, the powerhouse of the cell.
• Glucose + Oxygen Carbon dioxide + Water + ATP
C6H12O6 + 6O2 CO2 + H2 O
Fig. 1. The Mitochondrion
Fig. 2. Plant Cell and Animal Cell
CELLULAR RESPIRATION
Cellular respiration involves many chemical
reactions. As you saw earlier, the reactions can
be summed up in this equation: C6H12O6 + 6O2
→ 6CO2 + 6H2O + Chemical Energy (in ATP). The
reactions of cellular respiration can be grouped
into three stages: glycolysis, the Krebs cycle
(also called the citric acid cycle), and electron
transport.
STAGES OF CELLULAR RESPIRATION
1. Glycolysis - During glycolysis, one six-carbon
molecule of glucose is broken into two
molecules of the three-carbon compound
pyruvate. During this process, ATP is produced
from ADP and Pi, and nicotinamide adenine
dinucleotide (NAD+) is reduced to form NADH.
STAGES OF CELLULAR RESPIRATION
2. Citric acid cycle/ Krebs Cycle - Each acetyl CoA
is oxidized to two molecules of CO2. During this
sequence of reactions, more ATP and NADH are
produced, and flavin adenine dinucleotide (FAD)
is reduced to form FADH2.
STAGES OF CELLULAR RESPIRATION
3. Electron transport - Electrons from NADH and FADH2
move through a series of proteins that together are called an
electron transport chain (ETC). The energy released in this
chain of redox reactions is used to create a proton gradient
across a membrane; the ensuing flow of protons back across
the membrane is used to make ATP. Because this mode of
ATP production links the phosphorylation of ADP with the
oxidation of NADH and FADH2, it is called oxidative
phosphorylation.
Fig. 3. Cellular respiration takes place in the stages shown here 
Respiratio
nRespiration is the group of processes that utilizes the
energy that is stored through the photosynthetic
processes. The steps in respiration are small enzyme-
mediated steps the release tiny amounts of
immediately available energy, the energy released is
usually stored in ATP molecules which allow for even
more efficient use of an organism’s energy. Respiration
occurs in the mitochondria and cytoplasm of cells.
Respiratio
n
There are several forms of respiration: aerobic—which requires
oxygen, anaerobic—which occurs in the absence of oxygen, and
fermentation—which also occurs in the absence of oxygen.
 
Aerobic respiration is the most common form of respiration and cannot
be completed without oxygen gas. The controlled release of energy is
the main event in aerobic respiration.
Certain types of bacteria and other organisms without oxygen gas carry
on anaerobic respiration and fermentation. Compared to aerobic
respiration the amount of energy released is quite small. The main
difference between aerobic respiration and fermentation is in the way
hydrogen is released and combined with other substances
Respiratio
nTwo very common forms of fermentation are summed up by
the following equations:
 
C6H12O6 -> (with enzymes)-> 2C2H5OH + 2CO2 + energy (ATP)
glucose                                       ethyl alcohol   carbon dioxide
 
C6H12O6 -> (with enzymes) -> 2C3H6O3 + energy (ATP)
glucose                                         lactic acid
 
Note the first equation is particularly valuable to the brewing
industry.
Major Steps in
Respiration:
Glycolysis—the first step does not require oxygen gas (O2) and takes
place in the cytoplasm. The glycolytic phase is subdivided into three
main steps and several smaller ones.
Each step is mediated by an enzyme. A small amount of energy is
released, and hydrogen atoms are removed from compounds derived
from glucose. The main gist of the steps are:
The glucose molecules goes through several steps and becomes a
double phosphorylated fructose molecule.
The 6-carbon fructose molecule is split into two 3-carbon fragments,
each with a phosphate, GA3P
C.    Hydrogen, energy and water are removed from the GA3P
molecules leaving pyruvic acid.
Major Steps in
Respiration:
Glycolysis requires two molecules of ATP to get the process
started. In the processes, four ATP molecules are created,
with a net gain of 2 ATP molecules at the end of glycolysis.
The hydrogen ions and electrons that are released are held
by an acceptor molecule called NAD—nicotinamide adenine
dinucleotide.  The overall end products of gylcolysis is: 2-ATP
molecules, 2-NADH molecules, and pyruvic acid.

The next step depends on the kind of respiration involved—

aerobic, true anaerobic or fermentation.
Aerobic Respiration (with oxygen
present)
The Krebs Cycle (or citric acid cycle)—The Krebs cycle takes place in the fluid matrix
of the cristae compartments of the mitochondria. It is called the citric acid cycle
because of all the intermediate acids in the cycle. The pyruvic acid product of
glycolysis is restructured, some of the CO2 is lost and becomes acetyl CoA which
then dumps into the Krebs cycle. During the restructuring of pyruvic acid, a
molecule of NADH is produced.  The Krebs cycle removes energy, CO2 and hydrogen
from acetyl CoA via enzyme mediated reactions of organic acids.
 
The hydrogen removed during the Krebs cycle is picked up by FAD and NAD
acceptor molecules. The result of the metabolizing of two acetyl CoA molecules in
the Krebs cycle is: 2-ATP molecule, oxaloacetic acid (to further drive the cycle), 6-
NADH2 molecules, 2-FADH2 molecules and 2CO2 molecules. The NAD and FAD
molecules and the hydrogens that they carry will be dumped into the next step in
respiration in order to extract the energy from the molecules.
Anaerobic respiration and
fermentation result in a net gain of 2-ATP
molecules from glycolysis. It should be
noted, that the by-products of these
processes, lactic acid and alcohol, will
eventually kill the organism if the
products are not digested.
Factors regulating the rate of
respiration
Temperature—To a point, the higher the temperature the
faster respiration occurs. At some temperature, enzymes will
become inactivated, although there are thermophilic (heat-
loving) organisms that do quite well in high-temperature
environments. Energy from sugar is released faster as the rate
of respiration increases which results in a net weight loss.
Plants offset the weight loss by increasing photosynthetic
production of sugar. Note that during respiration, some of the
energy is lost as heat, which results in an overall increase in
organism temperature—not necessarily detectible by human
hands. 
Factors regulating the rate of
respiration
Water—Enzymes generally operate in the presence of water, and
reduced water in a plant will reduce the rate of respiration. Seeds
usually have a water content of less than 10%, while mature living
cells usually are in excess of 90% water. Seeds keep better if they
are kept dry as the respiration rate remains quite low. However, if
a seed comes into contact with water and via imbibition swells,
the respiration rate will skyrocket. The temperature could
increase to the point of killing the seeds. Spontaneous
combustion can occur from the respiration generated heat when
a fungi or bacterium is permitted to grow on wet seeds. Kind of a
neat little trivia fact to tuck away.
Factors regulating the rate of
respiration
Oxygen—Oxygen is an important
regulator of respiration. If oxygen is
drastically reduced, respiration may drop
off to the point of retarding growth or
death.  Low oxygen concentrations can
lead to the onset of fermentation
processes.
Assimilation and Digestion
Assimilation is the conversion of the sugar
produced by photosynthesis to fats,
proteins, complex carbohydrates and other
substances. While digestion is the
breakdown of large insoluble molecules by
hydrolysis to smaller soluble forms that can
be transported to various parts of the plant.
Summary of key differences between
Photosynthesis and Respiration:
Photosynthesis Respiration
-Energy stored in sugar -Energy released from sugar
molecules molecules
-Carbon dioxide and -Carbon dioxide and water
water used released
-Increases weight -Decreases weight
-Requires light -Can occur in light or darkness
-Occurs in chlorophyll -Occurs in all living cells
-In green organisms, -Uses oxygen (aerobic
produces oxygen respiration)
-With light energy, -With energy released from
produces ATP sugar, produces ATP.
Summary :
• Green plants and other organisms convert light energy
into chemical energy through photosynthesis.
• Photosynthesis is essential for almost all light on earth,
either directly or indirectly.
• Chloroplast in the leaves of plant cells are the
organelles in which photosynthesis takes place.
• Chloroplasts contain chlorophyll which absorbs the
light energy.
Summary :
• Thylakoids are disc-shaped substructures in the
chloroplast that are arranged into grana. The thylakoids
contain chlorophyll.
• The reactions of photosynthesis occur in two phases:
the light-dependent reactions and the light-
independent reactions (aka the Calvin cycle)
• The photosynthesis equation: Carbon dioxide + water =
sugar + oxygen.
 THANK YOU
FOR LISTENING!
REFERENCES:
• https://www.nationalgeographic.org/encyclopedia/photosynthesis/#:~:t
ext=Photosynthesis%20is%20the%20process%20by,in%20the%20for
m%20of%20sugar
.

• https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC5264509/#:~:text=The
%20light%20reactions%20of%20photosynthesis,the%20stroma%20(Fi
gure%203)
.

• Eric Strauss and Marylin Lisowski, 1998, Biology (The Web of Life),