Chapter 1

Introduction to Heat Transfer

 1.0 Introduction
• Thermodynamics
– study the effects of adding or removing a quantity of heat (or
energy) to or from a system.
• Heat Transfer
– study the rate at which the heat (or energy) is transferred.
• When two systems are in contact and are at different
temperatures, they will exchange thermal energy
– Energy travels from the system of high temperature to the
low one
– The rate of exchange is proportional to the temperature
difference
 • There are three modes of energy transfer
– Conduction
– Convection
– Radiation

Conduction Convection Radiation

T1 T1>T2 T2 Ts>T∞ T1
q1’’

Moving fluid T∞ T2
q’’ q2’’
q’’
Solid or Stagnant Fluid
Ts
 1.1 Conduction
• When there exists a temperature gradient within a
body, heat energy will flow from the region of
high temperature to the region of low temperature
• This mode of heat transfer occurs at the molecular
level via two processes:
– The energy from one molecule is transferred to an
adjacent molecule or
– The energy is transferred by free electrons (Mostly
encountered in pure metallic solids).
– No bulk motion
• The basic equation for conductive heat transfer is defined by Fourier’s law

 
q
• Or

  kT [Equation 1.1]

A

Where q = heat transfer rate (W or Btu/hr)
A = area normal to direction of heat flux (ft2, m2)
k = thermal conductivity, property of material,
(Wm-1K-1, Btu hr-1 ft-1 oF-1)
 
q"   kT

Where q"= heat flux (W/m ) 2
• In one dimension equation 1.1 becomes

• If the temperature distribution is linear becomes

dT
q x "  k
dx
dT
dx
T2  T1 T2  T1

x2  x1 L
T1
T2 qx "
x1 x2
L
 Example 1.1
Calculate the rate of heat transfer through a pane of
window glass (k=0.78W/m K) 1 m high, 0.5 cm thick, and
0.5 m wide, if the outer surface temperature is 24oC and
the inner surface temperature is 24.5oC.
y
24.5oC
1m x
24oC

0.5 m
0.5 cm
 Solution
• Assumptions:
– Steady-State conditions
– One-dimensional conduction through the
window
– Constant thermal conductivity
 Solution
dT T2  T1 T2  T1
qx "  k  k  k
dx x2  x1 L
o o
24 C - 24.5 C
q x "  0.78W/m K
0.5 cm
297K - 297.5K 2
q x "  0.78W/m K  78W/m
0.005 m
2
q x  Aq x "  1m 0.5m 78W/m  39 W
 1.2 Convection
• Heat energy transfers between a solid and a
fluid when there is a temperature difference
between the fluid and the solid
• This mode of heat transfer occurs both at
the molecular level and macroscopic level:
– The energy from one molecule is transferred to
an adjacent molecule
– The energy is transferred by the bulk or
macroscopic motion of the fluid
• Forced convection: Flow is caused by
external means, fans, wind, pumps etc.

                            

                           
• Free (natural) convection: Flow is induced
by buoyancy forces, which arise from
density differences caused by temperature
variation in the fluid.
Cold
T ρ

T ρ
Hot
 • Convection with latent heat exchange:
Associated with a phase change between
liquid and vapor (boiling and condensation)

Moist Air
Water
q” Droplets
q”
Vapor Cold
Water Water
Bubbles
Hot plate
• The basic equation for convection heat transfer was defined by Newton and is usually referred to as the Newton rate equation:


q
• Or

 hT [Equation 1.2]

A

Where q = heat transfer rate (W or Btu/hr)
A = area normal to direction of heat flux (ft2, m2)
h =convection heat transfer coefficient,
(Wm-2K-1, Btu hr-1 ft-2 oF-1)

q "  h T

Where q"= heat flux (W/m2)
 •  
• When using equation 1.2, the key to solving
convective heat transfer problems is the
determination of h. We will devote several lectures
on this problem later on. Basically h depends upon
the following factors:
– Type of convection: Free (natural) or
Forced
– Geometry
– Type of flow: Laminar: heat transfer is through
conduction between streamlines.
Turbulent: heat transfer due to conduction and
macroscopic movement of fluid in the direction of the
heat transfer. Therefore the convective heat transfer
coefficient is usually higher than that of laminar flow.
• Note1: Equation 1.2 is a definition that simplifies
the problem of convective heat transfer, this is not
a law.
• Note 2: We often have to distinguish between the
local and average convective heat transfer
coefficient(hx, h)
• Note 3: The convective heat transfer coefficient is
not an inherent property of the material. But it
will depend on the density, viscosity , velocity and
for free convection on the thermal coefficient of
expansion of the fluid
 Example 1.2
Calculate the rate of heat transfer by natural convection
between a shed roof of area 20m x 20m and ambient air, if
the roof surface temperature is 27oC the air temperature is
-3oC and the average convection heat transfer coefficient is
10W/m2K.

20 m

Troof = 20 oC 20 m
 Solution
• Assumptions:
– Steady-State conditions
q
 hT
A

q  hair Aroof Troof  Tair 
q  10(W / m 2 K )400m 2 (27  3) o C  120000W
 1.3 Radiation
• Energy emitted by matter that is at a finite
temperature.
• This mode of heat transfer is attributed to
changes in the atom configuration.
• Does not require the presence of a medium
• Most efficiently done in a vacuum
• The basic equation for radiation heat transfer
comes from Stefan-Boltzman law, which
represents the upper limit to the emissive
power (emissive power of a blackbody)
Eb   Ts4

Where Eb = emissive power (W/m2)

Ts = absolute temperature (K)
σ = Stefan-Boltzman constant 5.676x10-8 W/m2K4 or
0.1714x10-8 Btu/hr ft2 oR4
• For a real surface the emissive power is smaller and can be calculated using

4
•
E    T [Equation 1.3]
Radiation may also be incident bto the surface. sG the irradiation, designates the rate of all radiation
incident on a unit area of surface.
• A portion or all of the incident radiation may be absorbed based on the surface radiative property
Where
termed absorptivity α ε = the emissivity of the surface 0    1

0    1
• Radiation can also be reflected or
transmitted

J
G
G E

G

G
 Special Case
• Radiation exchange between small surface s
at temperature Ts and large enclosing
surface sur at temperature Tsur.
• s is a gray surface (α = ε)
Here the net rate of radiation heat transfer from the surface can be
Expressed as

q 4 4
qrad "   EbTs  G   Ts  Tsur
A
 
• It is often convenient to linearize the
radiation rate equation and express it in a
manner similar to convection:

qrad  hr ATs  Tsur 

Where hr   Ts  Tsur T  T

s
2 2
sur 
• Note: hr depends strongly on temperature,
while the temperature dependence of the
convection heat transfer coefficient h is
generally weak.
 Example 1.3
A long, cylindrical electrically heated rod, 2 cm in
diameter, is installed in a vacuum furnace as shown below.
The surface of the heating rod is maintained at 1000 K,
while the interior walls of the furnace are black and are at
800 K. Calculate the net rate at which heat is lost from the
rod per unit length and the radiation heat transfer
coefficient.
 Solution
• Assumptions:
– Steady-State conditions
– Radiation exchange between the electrically
heated rod and the furnace is between a small surface
and in much larger enclosure
– The surface emissivity and absorptivity are equal
 Solution

qr  ATs4  Tsur
4
   Ts4  Tsur4 Drod L
 W 

qr  0.9 5.67x10 -8
2 4
m K 
 
1000 4
K 4
 800 4
K 4

 0.02m 1.0m 


qr  1893W

 
hr   Ts  Tsur Ts2  Tsur
2

W 
hr  0.9 5.67x10-8 2 4 1000K  800 K 10002 K 2  8002 K 2 

 mK 
W
hr  151 2
m K
1.4 Conservation of Energy for a
Control Volume (C.V.)
• Application of the first law of
thermodynamic.
– Need to define a control volume bounded by a
control surface through which energy and
matter pass
– Need to define an appropriate time basis
 Energy in or out Energy in or
due to radiation out due to
conduction

Generation of
Energy

Accumulation
of Energy

Energy in or
out due to
convection

Accumulation of Energy = Energy In - Energy Out + Energy Generated

 General Form of the Energy
Conservation Equation
dEst
 E in  E g  E out
dt
dEst
Where  Rate of change of the energy stored in the C.V.
dt
E in  Rate at which energy enters the C.V.

E g  Rate at which energy is generated in the C.V.

E out  Rate at which energy leaves the C.V.

 Example 1.4
A fluid of density ρ and specific heat Cp flows in a circular
pipe. Derive an expression for the temperature of the fluid
as a function of position, given that the pipe inner wall
temperature Tw is constant and uniform.

Data: temperature of the fluid at the inlet T0 (T0 < Tw)

velocity of fluid v0 is constant
velocity profile is flat (plug shape)
convection heat transfer coefficient h is constant
Tw
T0 v0
 Solution
• Assumptions:
– Steady-State conditions
– No radiation effect
– The fluid is well-mixed (highly turbulent), so
the temperature is uniform in the radial
direction
– Thermal conduction of heat along the axis is
small relative to convection
 Solution
define a control volume
Convection

Rate of mass in (Tz) Rate of mass out (Tz+Δz)

z z+Δz
Δz
 Solution
Accumulation of Energy = Energy In - Energy Out + Energy Generated
0 0
Energy In - Energy Out = 0

2
Energy In = Ein  R v0 C pTz

Energy Out = Eout  R v0 C pTz  z  2RzhT  Tw 

2

R 2 v0 C pTz  R 2 v0 C pTz  z  2Rzh T  Tw   0

Divide by Rz Rv0 C p Tz  Tz  z 
 2hT  Tw   0
z
Rv0 C p Tz  Tz  z  dT
lim  2hT  Tw   0  Rv0 C p  2hT  Tw   0
z 0 z dz