Heat Transfer:

Physical Origins
and
Rate Equations

Prof Pradeep Kumar Sahoo

Heat Transfer and Thermal Energy

• What is heat transfer?

Heat transfer is thermal energy in transit due to a
temperature difference.

• What is thermal energy?

Thermal energy is associated with the translation,

rotation, vibration and electronic states of the atoms and
molecules that comprise matter. It represents the
cumulative effect of microscopic activities and is directly
linked to the temperature of matter.
Heat Transfer and Thermal Energy (cont.)

DO NOT confuse or interchange the meanings of Thermal

Energy, Temperature and Heat Transfer
Quantity Meaning Symbol Units

Thermal Energy+ Energy associated with microscopic U or u J or J/kg

behavior of matter

Temperature A means of indirectly assessing the

amount of thermal energy stored in T K or °C
matter

Heat Transfer Thermal energy transport due to

temperature gradients

Heat Amount of thermal energy transferred Q J

over a time interval  t  0

Heat Rate Thermal energy transfer per unit time q W

Heat Flux Thermal energy transfer per unit time and q  W/m 2
surface area

+
U  Thermal energy of system
u  Thermal energy per unit mass of system
Modes of Heat Transfer
Modes of Heat Transfer

Conduction: Heat transfer in a solid or a stationary fluid (gas or liquid) due to

the random motion of its constituent atoms, molecules and /or electrons.
Convection: Heat transfer due to the combined influence of bulk and random
motion for fluid flow over a surface.
Radiation: Energy that is emitted by matter due to changes in the electron
configurations of its atoms or molecules and is transported as electromagnetic
waves (or photons).
• Conduction and convection require the presence of temperature variation in a
material medium.
• Although radiation originates from matter, its transport does not require a
material medium and occurs most efficiently in a vacuum.
Heat Transfer Rates: Conduction

Heat Transfer Rates

Conduction:
General (vector) form of Fourier’s Law:

q   k T

Heat flux Thermal conductivity Temperature gradient

2
W/m W/m  K °C/m or K/m

Application to one-dimensional, steady conduction across a

plane wall of constant thermal conductivity:
dT T T
qx   k  k 2 1
dx L
T1  T2
qx  k (1.2)
L

Heat rate (W):

qx  qx  A
Example: The wall of an industrial furnace is constructed from
0.15-m-thick fireclay brick having a thermal conductivity of 1.7
W/mK. Measurements made during steady-state operation
reveal temperatures of 1400 and 1150 K at the inner and outer
surfaces, respectively. What is the rate of heat loss through a
wall that is 0.5 m and 1.2 m on a side?
Comments: Note the direction of heat flow and the
distinction between heat flux and heat rate.
Heat Transfer Rates:Convection

Heat Transfer Rates

Convection
Relation of convection to flow over a surface and development
of velocity and thermal boundary layers:

Newton’s law of cooling:

q   h Ts  T  (1.3a)

h : Convection heat transfer coefficient (W/m 2  K)

FIGURE: Convection heat transfer processes. (a) Forced
convection. (b) Natural convection. (c) Boiling. (d) Condensation.
Heat Transfer Rates: Radiation

Heat Transfer Rates

Radiation Heat transfer at a gas/surface interface involves radiation
emission from the surface and may also involve the
absorption of radiation incident from the surroundings
(irradiation, G ), as well as convection if Ts  T  .
Energy outflow due to emission:
E   Eb   Ts4 (1.5)
E : Emissive power  W/m 2 
 : Surface emissivity  0    1
Eb : Emissive power of a blackbody (the perfect emit ter)
 : Stefan-Boltzmann constant 5.67×10 -8 W/m 2  K 4 

Energy absorption due to irradiation:

Gabs   G
Gabs :Absorbed incident radiation(W/m 2 )
 : Surface absorptivity  0    1
G : Irradiation  W/m 2 
Heat Transfer Rates: Radiation (cont.)

Heat Transfer Rates

Irradiation: Special case of surface exposed to large
surroundings of uniform temperature, Tsur

4
G  Gsur   Tsur

If    , the net radiation heat flux from the

surface due to exchange with the surroundings is:
   Eb Ts    G   Ts4  Tsur
qrad 4
 (1.7)
Heat Transfer Rates: Radiation (cont.)

Heat Transfer Rates

Alternatively,

  h r Ts  Tsur 
qrad (1.8)

h r : Radiation heat transfer coefficient  W/m 2  K 

h r   Ts  Tsur  Ts2  Tsur
2
 (1.9)

For combined convection and radiation,

q  qconv   h Ts  T   h r Ts  Tsur 
  qrad (1.10)
Problem: Electronic Cooling

Problem 2: Power dissipation from chips operating at a surface

temperature of 85C and in an enclosure whose walls and air are at
25C for (a) free convection and (b) forced convection.
Schematic:

T sur = 25 o C
S ubstrate
Air q rad
o C hip, P elec
= 25 C o
h = 4.2(T s - )
1/4 T s = 85 C , = 0.60
or q conv L = 15 m m
W /m 2 -K

Assumptions:
1. Steady-state conditions,
2. Radiation exchange between a small surface and a large enclosure,
3. Negligible heat transfer from sides of chip or from back of chip by
conduction through the substrate.
Problem: Electronic Cooling

Analysis:

Pelec  qconv  qrad  hA Ts  T    Ts4  Tsur

4

A  L2   0.015m  =2.25×10-4 m 2
2

(a) If heat transfer is by natural convection,

qconv  CA Ts  T   4.2W/m 2  K 5/4  2.25×10-4 m 2   60K 

5/ 4 5/4
=0.158W
qrad  0.60  2.25×10-4 m 2  5.67×10-8 W/m 2  K 4 3584 -2984  K 4 =0.065W
Pelec  0.158W+0.065W=0.223W

(b) If heat transfer is by forced convection,

qconv  hA Ts  T   250W/m2  K 4  2.25×10-4m 2  60K  =3.375W
Pelec  3.375W+0.065W=3.44W
Conservation of Energy
Alternative Formulations

CONSERVATION OF ENERGY
(FIRST LAW OF THERMODYNAMICS)
• An important tool in heat transfer analysis, often providing
the basis for determining the temperature of a system.

• Alternative Formulations
Time Basis:
At an instant
or
Over a time interval
Type of System:
Control volume
Control surface
CV at an Instant and over a Time Interval

APPLICATION TO A CONTROL VOLUME

• At an Instant of Time:

Surface Phenomena
 
E in E out :
, rate of thermal and/or mechanical energy transfer across the control
surface due to heat transfer, fluid flow and/or work interactions.

Volumetric Phenomena

Eg : rate of thermal energy generation due to conversion from another enegy form
(e.g., electrical, nuclear, or chemical); energy conversion process occurs within the system.

E st : rate of change of energy storage in the system.
CV at an Instant and over a Time Interval

Conservation of Energy
  
dEst 
E in  E out  E g  dt  E st (1.11c)

Each term has units of J/s or W.

• Over a Time Interval

Ein  Eout  Eg  Est (1.11b)
Each term has units of J.
Closed System

• Special Cases (Linkages to Thermodynamics)

(i) Transient Process for a Closed System of Mass (M) Assuming
Heat Transfer to the System (Inflow) and Work Done by the
System (Outflow).

Over a time interval

Q  W  Esttot (1.11a)

For negligible changes in potential or kinetic energy

Q  W  U t
Internal thermal energy

At an instant
dU t

q W 
dt
Open System
(ii) Steady State for Flow through an Open System without Phase Change or
Generation:

At an Instant of 2
• 2 •  
m  ut  pv  V  gz   q  m  ut  pv  V
•
Time:  gz   W  0
 2 in 2 (1.11d)
 out
Surface Energy Balance

THE SURFACE ENERGY BALANCE

A special case for which no volume or mass is encompassed by the
control surface.
Conservation

Energy (Instant in Time):

Ein  E out  0 (1.12)
• Applies for steady-state and transient conditions.

Consider surface of wall with heat transfer by conduction, convection and radiation.

  qconv
qcond   qrad
  0

k
T1  T2
L

 h T2  T    2 T24  Tsur
4

0
Methodology

METHODOLOGY OF FIRST LAW ANALYSIS

• On a schematic of the system, represent the control surface
by dashed line(s).

• Choose the appropriate time basis.

• Identify relevant energy transport, generation and/or storage terms
by labeled arrows on the schematic.
• Write the governing form of the Conservation of Energy
requirement.
• Substitute appropriate expressions for terms of the energy equation
• Solve for the unknown quantity.
EXAMPLE: Humans are able to control their heat production rate and heat loss rate
to maintain a nearly constant core temperature of Tc = 37oC under a wide range of
environmental conditions. This process is called thermoregulation. From the
perspective of calculating heat transfer between a human body and its
surroundings, we focus on a layer of skin and fat, with its outer surface exposed to
the environment and its inner surface at a temperature slightly less than the core
temperature, Ti = 35oC (308 K). Consider a person with a skin/fat layer of thickness
L = 3 mm and effective thermal conductivity k = 0.3 W/mK. The person has a surface
area A = 1.8 m2 and is dressed in a bathing suit. The emissivity of the skin is 0.95.
(i) When the person is in still air at T = 297 K, what is the skin surface
temperature and rate of heat loss to the environment? Convection heat transfer
to the air is characterized by a free convection coefficient of h = 2 W/m2K.
(ii) When the person is in water at T = 297 K, what is the skin surface
temperature and heat loss rate? Heat transfer to the water is characterized by a
convection coefficient of h = 200 W/m2K.
Assumptions:
1. Steady-state conditions.
2. One-dimensional heat transfer by conduction through the
skin/fat layer.
3. Thermal conductivity is uniform.
4. Radiation exchange between the skin surface and the
surroundings is between a small
5. surface and a large enclosure at the air temperature.
6. Liquid water is opaque to thermal radiation.
7. Bathing suit has no effect on heat loss from body.
8. Solar radiation is negligible.
9. Body is completely immersed in water in part 2.
Analysis: The skin surface temperature may be obtained by performing an
energy balance at the skin surface.
hr = 5.9 W/m2K

Ts = 307.2 K

2. Since liquid water is opaque to thermal radiation, heat loss

from the skin surface is by convection only. Using the
previous expression with hr = 0, we find

Ts = 300.7 K
Comments:
1. When using energy balances involving radiation exchange, the
temperatures appearing in the radiation terms must be
expressed in kelvins, and it is good practice to use kelvins in
all terms to avoid confusion.
2. In part 1, heat losses due to convection and radiation are 37 W
and 109 W, respectively. Thus, it would not have been
reasonable to neglect radiation.
3. A typical rate of metabolic heat generation is 100 W. If the
person stayed in the water too long, the core body temperature
would begin to fall.
4. The skin temperature of 34C in part 1 is comfortable, but the
skin temperature of 28C in part 2 is uncomfortably cold.