Cartography

E. A. Mensah
Forms of Representation
There are four basic ways by which knowledge can be
communicated.
1. Literacy – Using written language
2. Articulacy – Using spoken language
3. Numeracy – Using numbers and symbols
4. Graphicacy –Using drawings and paintings

Cartography is way of communicating the spatial

structure of our environment using graphics.
Definition
1. Cartography refers to the making and study of maps in
all their aspects (Robinson,1995)

2. In its widest sense, cartography refers to the

representation and communication of spatial
information in the form of maps. (Slocum et al,2005)

3. Cartography may also refer to the discipline concerned

with the scientific development and improvement of
techniques to be used in the communication of spatially
related data.
Nature and scope of cartography
There is the need for us to communicate to others, mental
images of spatial patterns which we have observed.
Cartography therefore involves the use of graphical symbols
to express, manipulate and analyze forms and relationships
within a 2d or 3 dimensional space.
Cartography covers among other things;
History of map making
Collection of spatial data
Management of spatial databases
Representation and visualization of spatial information.
Teaching of map making skills
 Development of Cartography
Modern Cartography is not the result of a linear evolutionary
process whereby maps developed in time from simple to more
sophisticated forms.

Rather, modern cartography is the end product of a series of

revolutionary ideas which have evolved sometimes in parallel

These sophisticated maps continue to evolve and may mature

Hence the diverse forms of maps we know today have evolved

through a process of revolution and evolution.
 History of Cartography
Sophisticated Sophisticated map
maps Re

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Ev
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Ladder
Concept Tree
concept

Primitive Primitive
maps
Source: (Robinson et al,1995) maps
Cartographic concepts - Antiquity and Dark
Ages
 Representation
 During Antiquity and Dark Ages, maps used to be
more figurative than literal/spatial ie they used
abstract forms to structure their environment other
than physical space.

 Figurative maps were generally for ceremonial

purposes. Therefore their lack of spatial fidelity was
not much of a problem.
 Figurative Map
Use Abstract form other than physical space to record the
spatial structure of features in their environment
Anaximander (c. 610 – 546 BCE)
Cartographic concepts - medieval period
Religion and representation
During the medieval period, Church Dogma became the
main influence, some knowledge was lost and maps
developed during this era tend to be figurative and
reflect a lot of religious information. For example
maps were developed which showed Jerusalem as the
centre of the world.

These maps were generally had a ceremonial purpose.

Therefore their lack of spatial fidelity was not much of a
problem.
Cartographic concepts – Greek Influence
Geometry

Advances made by Greek scholars in geometry helped

provide better idea of the size and shape of the earth
and was also the basis for the development of
locational frameworks.

More accurate representations of geographic space and

features.
Cartographic concepts - enlightenment
Distribution :
During the enlightenment, the following changes in
cartographic concepts occurred.
1. a shift in the focus from place to space
2. change in perspective from analysis of position of
features to holistic concern over spatial extent and
variation of features in space.
This gave rise to thematic maps.
Thematic maps – Extent of Mangrove Cover
Cartographic concepts - Twentieth Century
Cartographic modelling
In the Twentieth Century - Systems approach and
systems thinking helped with the recognition that,
components of the environment are linked together
such that change in one affects the other providing
basis for cartographic modelling.
Cartographic concepts – Quantitative maps
Quantitative revolution
Choropleth,Graduated Symbols, Point Density and
Flow maps
Cartographic concepts – digital
Digital Technology:
1. Digital Technology has made it possible for new
types of maps such hill shades , isarithmic
(interpolated surface) maps to be created.
2. has reduced the time required to update maps by
using high technology such GPS, satellite remote
sensing, GIS, etc
Maps Defined
Maps are a representation or abstraction of geographic
reality. A tool for presenting geographic information in
a way that is visual, digital or tactile (Board 1990).

A map is a graphic representation of spatial

relationships on the Earth or other planets
Structure of a map
 Structure of Maps
 Each map should have, next to the map image:
A title, informing the user about the topic visualized.
A legend, necessary to understand how the topic is
depicted. There must be a key that explains the symbols
used by the cartographer.
The map projection used,
Bibliographic information: The bibliographic
information should give the user an idea when the map
was created, how old the data used are, who has created
the map and even what tools were used. All this
information allows the user to obtain impression of the
quality of the map.
Orientation: By convention, cartographers place North
at the top of maps.
Scale: The map scale should be shown so that the reader
can make judgments about distances.
Map contents – Thematic maps
Primary contents
= main theme

Secondary contents
= topographic base map

Supportive contents
= marginal information
 Characteristics of Map
Maps are reduced versions of physical features
Maps contain simplified and abstracted versions of
physical features
Maps are graphical representations of features on the
earth
Maps show/project parts of the earths surface on a
plane
(e.g. paper or the display screen of a computer system)
Maps store spatial data
Maps contain static images of the earths surface

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Types of maps and relevance
Map can be classified using:
1. Scale: ratio of map distance to corresponding distance in real world.
Categories include small, medium and large scale. These are nominally
defined classes

2. Content:
Topographic maps /physical maps show the general features on the earth surface.
Thematic maps. Show the distribution of one or more related phenomena in space.
Soil, Poverty,Resource,Population and Ecological maps

3. Function:
General reference maps – Political administrative maps, topographic maps,
etc . Aimed at general audience.
Special purpose maps – Aimed at a specific audience example isogonic maps,
aeronautical charts, nautical charts
Types of maps
Map can be classified using:
4. Method/Technique: Statistical/Quantitative maps
example: Choropleth, isoline,Chorochromatic,Dot
density, Graduated symbol, Proportional symbol,
Cartograms, Hachure's , Shaded Relief, photo/image
map
Scale
 Topographic and thematic maps
 Topographic maps:
 Supplies a general image of the earth's surface: Transport, hydrology,
hypsometry, cultural features, often the nature of the vegetation, the
relief and the names of the various mapped objects.
 Are used as reference material as well as a planning document.
 Thematic maps
 Represent the distribution of one particular phenomenon.
 In order to illustrate this distribution properly every thematic map, as a basis,
needs topographic information; often a topographic map provides this, where
minor features have been omitted.
 In the computer (digital) environment there is no distinction
between topographic map and thematic maps.
Topographic Map
 Other map types
Aspect A map that shows the prevailing direction that a slope faces at each pixel.
Aspect maps are
often color-coded to show the eight major compass directions, or any of 360
degrees.

Base A map portraying background reference information onto which other

information is placed.
Base maps usually show the location and extent of natural Earth surface
features and permanent
human-made objects. Raster imagery, orthophotos, and orthoimages are often
used as base
maps.

Bathymetric map A map portraying the shape of a water body or reservoir using isobaths (depth
contours).
Cadastral A map showing the boundaries of the subdivisions of land and other
properties for purposes of describing and
recording ownership or taxation.
 Other map types
Choropleth A thematic map in which areas are shaded or patterned in proportion to
the measurement of the statistical variable being displayed on the map,
such as population density or per-capita income.

Composite A map on which the combined information from different thematic maps
is presented.

Contour A map in which lines are used to connect points of equal elevation. Lines
are often spaced in
increments of ten or twenty feet or meters.

Index A reference map that outlines the mapped area, identifies all of the
component maps for the area
if several map sheets are required, and identifies all adjacent map sheets.

Insert A map that is an enlargement of some congested area of a smaller scale

map, and that is usually
placed on the same sheet with the smaller scale main map.
Relevance of topographic maps
Provides information on physical features
Provide a base for developing thematic maps
Contain framework against which all other mapping is
done
Provides accurate coordinates
Enables the user to locate thematic info
Help to explain spatial distribution patterns
Importance of Maps
1. Database for spatial data
2. Aids navigation and positioning
3. Shows distribution of features in space
4. Aids in communicating spatial relationships
5. Aids spatial thinking
6. Supports decision making
7. Aids in problem identification
Ptolemy (c. 150)
 Universalis Cosmographia

Martin Waldseemüller (1470-1521?)