TC 2

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PUBLIC ADDRESS SYSTEM

JAYARAJAN.D
INSTRUCTOR (Tele)

PA System Ver 2.0 1

 AGENDA

• Application of PA system
• Acoustics
• Microphones
• Loud speakers
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• Amplifiers
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• Planning of PA
• Installation
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• Special types of PA systems
• Phasing and matching methods

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 What is a PA system?
• PA System is a type of communication, which can be used to
communicate to a limited public over a limited area.

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• The basic function of an audio system is to deliver audible and

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recognizable sounds at comparable level to the listener.

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• PA system comprises all the devices and networks that exist between
a source of sound (or its electrical equivalent) and its point of final
reproduction.

PA System Ver 2.0 3

 Application of P.A. system in Railways
• Passenger amenity
• Marshalling Yards
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• Breakdown Train Emergency Equipment
• Special Functions
• Railway Workshops
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• Conferences

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Acoustics
Acoustics is defined as the "Scientific Study” of Sound, especially
of its generation, propagation, reception and interaction with

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materials and is further described as the "total effect of sound”

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especially as produced in an enclosed space.

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PA System Ver 2.0 5

 Terms related to the study of Acoustics
Intensity: The intensity, I, in W/m², which is the sound power passing
normally through a unit area of space. This relates to amplitude of

acoustic force.
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Loudness: It is the intensity of the sound stimulus as perceived by the

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human ear and chiefly a function of sound pressure. However, it
depends upon the frequency and the complexity of the waveform.
Frequency: Frequency is the number of Cycles per second of a particular
sound wave. It is expressed in Hz.

PA System Ver 2.0 6

Pitch: It is the frequency of a sound as perceived by human ear. A high
frequency gives rise to a high pitch note and a low frequency produces
a low pitch note.

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At Low Freq. : Pitch varies directly with intensity, and
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At High Freq.: Pitch varies inversely with intensity.

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Timbre: Timbre denotes the harmonic content of a sound wave.
Brightness: This refers to the upper harmonic content of a tone.
Threshold of Audibility: The lowest acoustic pressure that gives rise to
a sensation of hearing.
Threshold of Pain: The highest acoustic pressure to which ear can
respond
PA System
without experiencing pain.Ver 2.0 7
 Volume Range
•It is the difference in amplitude expressed in decibels between
the maximum and minimum volumes that can be satisfactorily

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handled by a system.

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•In a recording system, the signal to noise ratio of the system

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determines the maximum volume of dynamic range of that
system.
•For a live pickup, the ambient noise level of the recording studio
and the system noise combined limits the volume range.

PA System Ver 2.0 8

 Audibility

•Hearing is the end result of differential pressure changes applied to a

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membrane within the ear.

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•If very little or no pressure changes are present, the ear hears nothing.

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•Conversely, if extreme changes appear, the forced vibrations of the
membrane may damage the ear.

PA System Ver 2.0 9

• The lowest acoustic pressure that gives rise to a sensation of
hearing is known as the "threshold of audibility", while the highest

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pressure to which the ear can respond without experiencing pain is

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called "threshold of pain".

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• The ratio of acoustic power at these two limits is the dynamic range
of the ear and is approximately 1012 (the threshold of pain
represents 1012 times the power of the threshold of audibility) near
the middle of the audio spectrum.

PA System Ver 2.0 10

 Sound pressure and its units

•Sound at a particular point in air is the rapid variation in the air

pressure around a steady state value.
•This sound pressure is measured in the same units as atmospheric

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pressure, and since it is an alternating quantity, the term "sound

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pressure" usually refers to its RMS value.
•At a frequency of 1 KHz, a sound with an RMS pressure of 2 x 10-4 bar,
or about 2 x 10-10 atmosphere, is just below the threshold of hearing for
good ears, that is a sound of this magnitude is inaudible, but slightly
larger sound pressures can barely be heard.

PA System Ver 2.0 11

• This demonstrates the amazing sensitivity of the human ear - it
can detect variations in atmospheric pressure as small as a few
parts in 1010.

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• One bar equals one dynes per square centimeter or 0.1 Newton
per square meter.
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• A human speaker at a distance of 1meter generates a sound
pressure of 1 bar.

PA System Ver 2.0 12

 Sound pressure level (SPL)

•In acoustics, the ratings most commonly encountered are changes in

power levels.

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•First of all there exists a reference. It is 0.0002 dynes/cm2. This has

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been changed to 0.00002 newtons/m2 , i.e. (20  newtons/m2).

•Note that the SPL is analogous to voltage. So 20 is the multiplier used

for calculating dB SPL.
One microbar is equal to 1 dyne/cm2
One microbar is equal to 74 dB SPL 
PA System Ver 2.0 13
• Sound pressure is also measured in Pascal (Pa).
• 1 Pascal is equal to 10  bars.
• RMS sound pressure is commonly expressed in dB above 2 x 10-4 bar

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and referred to as "sound pressure level". Mathematically, if 'P' is

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RMS sound pressure and 'L' is Sound Pressure Level, then: 
L = 20 log10 P/Pref. dB

Where, Pref. = 2 x 10-4  bar.

• Sound pressure and sound pressure level are analogous to voltage
and voltage level in the field of electricity.
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 Acoustic impedance
•Acoustic impedance of a sound medium is the complex quotient of the
sound pressure and the particle velocity multiplied by the unit of area
(square centimeter, square meter, etc.).

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•The surface of the unit area must lie on the sound wave front, i.e., the

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surface of the area is at all points perpendicular to the direction of
sound propagation.
•Mathematically  
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Acoustic Impedance Z = P / VS
Where, P is sound pressure, V is particle velocity and S is the unit area.

PA System Ver 2.0 15

• The unit of acoustic impedance is the acoustic ohm (100
Newtons/m5 or 1 dyne /cm5).
• Sound intensity, analogous to electrical power, is the rate at

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which acoustic energy flows through a unit area normal to the

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direction of propagation.
• It is the product of sound pressure and particle velocity.
• Expressed mathematically,
Sound intensity I = PV,
where P is sound pressure and V is particle velocity.

PA System Ver 2.0 16

 Loudness and its units
•In acoustics the accepted standard is a pure 1 KHz tone or narrow-band
noise centered at 1 KHz.
•The loudness level of any sound is defined as the sound pressure level

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of a standard sound, which appears to a significant number of observers
to be as loud as the unknown.
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•Loudness level is measured in "Phon", the loudness level of any sound
in phons being equal to the sound pressure level in dB of an equally
loud standard sound.
• Thus a sound which is judged to be as loud as 40 dB @ 1 KHz tone has
a loudness level Ls = 40 Phons.
PA System Ver 2.0 17
 LOUDNESS LOUDNESS
Decibels
SOURCE OF SOUND LEVELS LEVELS
(dB)
(PHONS) (SONES)

Threshold of Pain 140 1024 130

Jet Aircraft 120
ET 256 150
Truck 100
IS 64 90
Orator
Low conversation
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80
60
16
4 60
Quite Room 40 1 30
Rustling of Leaves 20 -- 10
Hearing Threshold 4 -- 0

PA System Ver 2.0 18

 MICROPHONES
• Microphone is a transducer, which converts acoustic energy into
electrical energy.
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• Microphones may be classified in to two according to Mode of
Operation:  IR
i) Pressure operated, and
ii) Velocity operated

PA System Ver 2.0 19

 Pressure operated
•Pressure operated microphones employ a diaphragm with only one
surface exposed to the sound source.
•The displacement of the diaphragm is proportional to the
instantaneous pressure of the sound wave.
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•At lower frequencies such microphones generally cause a resonant
response, giving rise to a peak that may reach 6 to 8 dB with reference
to 1KHz.
•The pressure-operated microphones are carbon, crystal, dynamic and
capacitor.

PA System Ver 2.0 20

 Velocity Operated
•A velocity microphone is one in which the electrical output
substantially corresponds to the instantaneous particle velocity in
the addressed sound wave.

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•A velocity microphone is also referred to as a gradient microphone.
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•A gradient microphone is a microphone in which the output

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corresponds to the gradient of the sound pressure.
•Ribbon microphones are velocity operated type.

PA System Ver 2.0 21

 Specifications of Microphones:
1. Type
2.   Sensitivity

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3.   Frequency Response
4.   Max. Sound Pressure level.
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5.   Impedance
6.   Minimum load impedance
7.   Cable and Connectors
8.   Front to Back Ratio
9. Polar Response.
PA System Ver 2.0 22
• Type: This specifies the microphone whether it is a Dynamic, Ribbon,
Capacitor or Crystal and also specifies whether it is a Pressure
gradient or Pressure Operated.

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• Sensitivity: It is the amount of voltage developed or generated by the

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microphone for an applied sound pressure at a test frequency of
1KHz. It is generally specified as mV/Microbar. It is also specified as
mV/Pa where Pa is Pascal, which is equal to 10 microbars. The higher
the voltage produced the higher the sensitivity and vice versa.

PA System Ver 2.0 23

• Frequency Response: It is the ability of a microphone to produce a
proportionate output to the sound pressure applied for the
specified range of frequencies.

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• The frequency response is distorted when the microphone is kept

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too close to the mouth.
• It generates spherical sound waves with very high impact pressure
when the distance from the mouth increases the spherical sound
waves flatten and become plane waves. So the distortion
diminishes with distance.

PA System Ver 2.0 24

• Maximum Sound Pressure Level: It is the maximum Sound Pressure
level that can produce a proportional output with a total harmonic
distortion limited to 1%.

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• Impedance: It is the impedance offered by the microphone at 1KHz.

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There are low impedance and high impedance microphones.
Low Impedance means less than 600 ohms
High Impedance means more than 10K ohms.

PA System Ver 2.0 25

• Minimum Load Impedance: It is the minimum input impedance of the
amplifier, which is used to utilize the microphone. The amplifier
input impedance should not be less than the minimum load
impedance of the microphone specified.
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• Cables and Connectors: It specifies the type and length of the cable
with a particular connector. IR
• Front to Back Ratio: It is specified in the case of unidirectional
microphone, which gives the response of front sound and back
sound. Generally it is 20 db.

PA System Ver 2.0 26

• Polar Response: It specifies the type of directivity pattern that
microphone responds it is a graph of the microphones
directional sensitivity. It specifies whether it is an omni-

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directional, Bi-directional or Uni-directional.

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PA System Ver 2.0 28

 Microphone Connectors
• Three of the most common connectors used for professional
audio are 3-pin XLR, 1/4" Phone Connector (6.5mm jacks) and

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RCA. Both 3-pin XLR and 6.5mm jacks are used with balanced

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cables whereas RCA connector is used with unbalanced cables.

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• 3-pin XLR connectors are mainly used for balanced audio signals.
Using a balanced signal reduces the risk of inference. The 3-Pin
XLR connector is also the standard connector for digital
connections (electronically balanced, impedance 110 ohms).

PA System Ver 2.0 29

 XLR Connector

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Pin  IR Signal
1 Shield
2 Signal +
3 Signal -  

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 Connector pins

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3-pin XLR Male

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3-pin XLR Female

PA System Ver 2.0 31

 Types of microphones

• Carbon Microphone
• Crystal Microphone
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• Dynamic Microphone
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• Capacitor Microphone
• Ribbon Microphone
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• Wireless or Cordless Microphone

PA System Ver 2.0 32

 Carbon Microphone

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• A carbon microphone, also known as a carbon button
microphone (or sometimes just a button microphone), use a
capsule or button containing carbon granules pressed between
two metal plates.

PA System Ver 2.0 34

• A voltage is applied across the metal plates, causing a small current
to flow through the carbon.

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• One of the plates, the diaphragm, vibrates with incident sound

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waves, applying a varying pressure to the carbon. The changing

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pressure deforms the granules, causing the contact area between
each pair of adjacent granules to change, and this causes the
electrical resistance of the mass of granules to change.

PA System Ver 2.0 35

• The changes in resistance cause a corresponding change in the
current flowing through the microphone, producing the electrical
signal.

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• Carbon microphones were once commonly used in telephones; they

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have extremely low-quality sound reproduction and a very limited
frequency response range, but are very robust devices.
• Disadvantages:-
1. Frequency response is limited.
2. Distortion is high.

PA System Ver 2.0 36

 Crystal Microphone

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• Crystals which demonstrate the piezoelectric effect produce
voltages when they are deformed.
• The crystal microphone uses a thin strip of piezoelectric material
attached to a diaphragm.

PA System Ver 2.0 38

• The two sides of the crystal acquire opposite charges when the
crystal is deflected by the diaphragm.
• The charges are proportional to the amount of deformation and

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disappear when the stress on the crystal disappears.

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• Early crystal microphones used Rochelle salt because of its high
output, but it was sensitive to moisture and somewhat fragile.
• Later microphones used ceramic materials such as barium titanate
and lead zirconate.

PA System Ver 2.0 39

 Dynamic Microphone

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PA System Ver 2.0 41

• Dynamic microphones work via electromagnetic induction.
• A small movable induction coil, positioned in the magnetic field of
a permanent magnet, is attached to the diaphragm.

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• When sound enters through the windscreen of the microphone, the
sound wave moves the diaphragm.
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• When the diaphragm vibrates, the coil moves in the magnetic field,
producing a varying current in the coil through electromagnetic
induction.
• A single dynamic membrane does not respond linearly to all audio
frequencies. 
PA System Ver 2.0 42
• Advantages:
Relatively cheap and rugged.
Can be easily miniaturized.
• Disadvantages:
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The uniformity of response to different frequencies does not match

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that of the condenser microphones.

PA System Ver 2.0 43

 RIBBON MICROPHONE

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Principle: The air movement associated with the sound moves the
metallic ribbon in the magnetic field, generating an electrical field
between the ends of the ribbon which is proportional to the velocity of
the ribbon - characterized as a "velocity" microphone.
PA System Ver 2.0 44
Advantages:
• Adds "warmth" to the tone by accenting lows when close-miked.
•Can be used to discriminate against distant low frequency noise in its
most common gradient form.
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Disadvantages:
• Accenting lows sometimes produces "boomy" bass.
•Very susceptible to wind noise. Not suitable for outside use unless very
well shielded.

PA System Ver 2.0 45

 Condenser Microphone

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 ET
Principle: sound pressure changes the spacing between a thin metallic

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membrane and the stationary back plate. The plates are charged to a
total charge.

where C is the capacitance and V the voltage of the biasing battery.

PA System Ver 2.0 48

Advantages:
• Best overall frequency response makes this, the microphone

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of choice for many recording applications.
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Disadvantages:
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•
•
Expensive
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May pop and crack when close miked.
• Requires a battery or external power supply to bias the
plates.  

PA System Ver 2.0 49

 CORDLESS MICROPHONE

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Hand Held Cordless Microphone

PA System Ver 2.0 50
 ET
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Wireless collar Microphone

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• A wireless or cordless microphone, as the name implies, is
a microphone without a physical cable connecting it directly to the
sound recording or amplifying equipment with which it is associated.

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• Also known as a radio microphone, it has a small, battery-

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powered radio transmitter in the microphone body, which transmits

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the audio signal from the microphone by radio waves to a nearby
receiver unit, which recovers the audio.
• Wireless microphones are widely used in the entertainment
industry, television broadcasting, and public speaking to allow public
speakers, interviewers, performers, and entertainers to move about
freely while using a microphone to amplify their voices.
PA System Ver 2.0 52
Advantages:
•Greater freedom of movement for the artist or speaker.

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•Avoidance of cabling problems common with wired

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microphones, caused by constant moving and stressing the cables.

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•Reduction of cable "trip hazards" in the performance space.

PA System Ver 2.0 53

Disadvantages:
•Sometimes limited range.
•Possible interference with or, more often, from other radio equipment
or other radio microphones.
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•Operation time is limited relative to battery life.

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•Noise or dead spots (places where it doesn't work, especially in non-
diversity systems).
•Limited number of operating microphones at the same time and place,
due to the limited number of radio channels (frequencies).

PA System Ver 2.0 54

 Boundary Microphone

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Boundary Microphones are designed for spoken word applications

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in meeting and conferencing based environments. A boundary
microphone is one or more small omni-directional or cardioid
condenser mic capsule(s) positioned near or flush with a boundary
(surface) such as a floor, table, or wall. The capsule(s) are typically
mounted in a flat plate or housing.
PA System Ver 2.0 55
 MICROPHONE CONNECTORS

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TRS Connector

PA System Ver 2.0 56

 INSTALLATION PRACTICE
• All microphones are delicate instruments; they must be carefully
handled and never dropped, nor placed where there may be metal
dust.
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• To avoid hum pick-up and especially in case of high impedance

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microphones, locate as far as possible from electrical apparatus. Do
not run microphone leads together with mains cable.
• For public address locate well away from preferably to rear of the
loudspeakers to prevent acoustic feedback 'howl‘.

PA System Ver 2.0 57

• Ribbon microphones should be at least 10’ from the speaker.
• One should speak into the microphone and on no account it
should be tested by blowing into the microphone.

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• When using microphone with long twin core lead (i.e., in low
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impedance condition) in association with equipment having high

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impedance input, a step up transformer/matching transformer is
required to be interposed in the lead near the equipment input
socket.
• Microphones should not be mounted on vibrating surface, e.g.
piano, amplifiers, radio, recorders, etc.
PA System Ver 2.0 58
• Microphones must be protected from strong winds, otherwise
'roaring' noises will result.
• It is common practice to provide windscreens in such cases.

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• A windscreen consists of a wire framework covered with silk and

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designed to fit over the outside of a microphone to reduce the effects
of wind noise. IR
• A wire frame is clamped over the end of the microphone housing.
• A windscreen is also called a "Wind Gag".

PA System Ver 2.0 59

 LOUDSPEAKERS
• The function of the loudspeaker is to convert electrical energy
into acoustic energy.

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• Loudspeakers may be classified into two main groups:

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• Cone Type - i.e., direct radiator, where cone or diaphragm is

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directly coupled to air.
• Horn Type – i.e., indirect radiator, where the diaphragm is
coupled to the air by means of horn.

PA System Ver 2.0 60

 Dynamic Loudspeaker

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Cone Type Loudspeaker

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• The voice coil in moving coil drivers is suspended in a magnetic
field provided by the loudspeaker magnet structure.
•
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As electric current flows through the voice coil (from an amplifier),

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the magnetic field created by the coil reacts against the magnet's

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fixed field and moves the voice coil (and so the cone).
• Alternating current will move the cone back and forth.

PA System Ver 2.0 63

 Horn Type Loudspeaker

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Re-Entrant horn speaker

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 ET
Specifications of Loud Speakers

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• Impedance: It is the impedance offered by a loud speaker at 400
Hz. The impedance will change with the frequency.

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• Impedance is the electrical characteristic of a speaker that

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restricts ("impedes") the flow of power from your receiver or

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amplifier. Impedance is the combination of the resistance of a
speaker plus its reactance.
• The impedance value of a loudspeaker is expressed in Ohms.

PA System Ver 2.0 67

• Power Handling Capacity (PHC): Loud Speaker manufacturers
use this term to indicate the maximum volume of sound that

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the loud speaker will produce before it runs into distortion.

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• Generally maximum 5% tolerance is allowed. It is also said

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that the voice coil of the loud speaker can handle the
maximum radial power safely.

PA System Ver 2.0 68

• For loudspeakers, there is also a thermal and a mechanical aspect to
maximum power handling.
• Not all energy delivered to a loudspeaker is emitted as sound.

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• In fact, most is converted to heat, and that heat must not rise too

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high or damage will follow.
• Loudspeaker components have mechanical limits which can be
exceeded by even a very brief power peak; an example is the most
common sort of loudspeaker driver, which cannot move in or
out more than some limit without mechanical damage.

PA System Ver 2.0 69

• There are a number of methods used to describe the power of an
electrical signal.
• These methods are given names such as "instantaneous power",

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"average power", "RMS Power", "peak power", "Music power",
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"Program Power" and others.

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• The most commonly used ratings are “RMS Power” and “PMPO”
(Peak Music Power Output).
• "RMS power" is practically the same as "Average power".
• Peak power here refers to the maximum amount of power an
electronic component can possibly handle for an instant without
damage.
PA System Ver 2.0 70
• “Peak Music Power Output (PMPO)” is of interest more to
advertising copy-writers than to consumers.

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• The term PMPO has never been defined in any standard, but it is

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often taken to be the sum of some sort of peak power for each
amplifier in a system.
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• Different manufacturers use different definitions, so that the
ratio of PMPO to continuous power output varies widely; it is not
possible to convert from one to the other.

PA System Ver 2.0 71

• Most amplifiers can sustain their PMPO for only a very short
time, if at all; loudspeakers are not designed to withstand their

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stated PMPO for anything but a momentary peak without serious

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damage.
• Frequency Response: It indicates the uniform sound pressure
throw for the given band of frequencies and it is related with the
enclosures that are used.

PA System Ver 2.0 72

• Sound pressure level: Loud speaker manufacturers indicate the
accurate of sound pressure in DB SPL at 1meter distance when 1 watt
of 1Khz signal feed to the loud speaker. It is also related with the
enclosures.
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• Apart from the above specification some manufactures indicate the
dimensions, weight and the size of the magnet used in the loud
speaker.

PA System Ver 2.0 73

 ET
PA AMPLIFIERS AND MIXERS

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PA System Ver 2.0 74

 MIXER
•A sound mixer is a device which takes two or more audio signals,
mixes them together and provides one or more output signals. The
diagram on the next slide shows a simple mixer with six inputs and
two outputs.
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•As well as combining signals, mixers allow you to adjust levels,
enhance sound with equalization and effects, create monitor feeds,
etc.
•Mixers come in a wide variety of sizes and designs, from small
portable units to massive studio consoles.

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 6 Channel Mixer

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 Applications
Some of the most common uses for sound mixers include:
•Music studios and live performances: Combining different
instruments into a stereo master mix and additional monitoring
mixes.

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•Television studios: Combining sound from microphones, tape

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recorders and other sources.
•Field shoots: Combining multiple microphones into 2 or 4 channels
for easier recording.
•Mixers are frequently described by the number of channels they
have. For example, a "12-channel mixer" has 12 input channels, i.e.
you can plug in 12 separate input sources.
PA System Ver 2.0 78
• You might also see a specification such as "24 x 4 x 2" which
means 24 input channels, 4 subgroup channels and 2 output
channels.

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Features and facilities of an amplifier:

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• Accommodating no. of input devices
• Various controls of input devices
• Rated power output
• Output connectivity for loud speakers
• Standby power supply connection

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Amplifier front view

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Amplifier rear view

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 Mic.1 Mic.2 Mic.3 Micic.4 Mic.5 Bass Treble Master

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Jack 1 Jack 2 Jack 3 Jack4 Jack5 ON/ OFF

+ __

IS E Pre Amp.

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out

2A Com. 70V 100V Com. 4Ω 8Ω 16Ω L ine

out.

Amplifier Front and back view

PA System Ver 2.0 82

• Technically, any device that applies gain (even negative gain) to a
signal is an amplifier. To distinguish it from other kinds of amplifier
(such as preamplifiers or line amplifiers), the main amplifiers are
often described as "power amplifiers".
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• A power amplifier takes a line-level signal and reproduces it in a form
that will drive a loudspeaker. It converts a low-voltage, high-
impedance waveform into a high-voltage, low-impedance waveform.
Its main purpose is to reproduce a low-power signal at high power.

PA System Ver 2.0 83

• Most modern PA amplifiers use transistors to convert the signal from
low to high power.
• Typically the work is shared by a number of transistors and these can

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get very warm when the amplifier is running at full power. For this

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reason, power amplifiers in PA systems are almost always fitted with
cooling fans and ventilation slots.
• Connect the line-level signals to the inputs, and connect the outputs
to the speakers. Always power up with the volume controls set to
minimum.

PA System Ver 2.0 84

 Performance of amplifiers
• Input and output Impedance.
• Input voltage to produce full rated output (volume control at
maximum position)

• Rated output in watts.

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• Percentage distortion at full output power expressed in relation to

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harmonics.
• Percentage of harmonics present at a quarter, half and three
quarters of full rated output.
• Frequency response.
• Noise level at full output.
• Power Consumption.
PA System Ver 2.0 85
 Measurements on amplifier
• Frequency Response
• Amplification (Gain)

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• Internal Noise Level

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• Output Power
• Harmonic Content
• Output Regulation
• Power Consumption

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PA System Ver 2.0 87

 Typical Specification of an Amplifier

MODEL SSA – 160 EM

Power Output 220 W RMS Max.
Output Regulation < 2dB no load to full load at 1 KHz
5 x Mic.
T
0.65mV / 4.7kΩ
E
IS
Input channels 2 x Aux. 100mV / 470kΩ

IR
Line input 1 V / 50kΩ
Frequency response +/- 3dB @ 50 to 15,000Hz
Signal to Noise Ratio 60dB
Tone controls
Box speaker position Bass: +10dB @ 100Hz Treble: + 10dB @ 10KHz
Driver unit position Bass: +10dB @ 100Hz Treble: + 10dB @ 10KHz
Pre Amp. Out 200mV / 600Ω
PA System Ver 2.0 88
 MODEL SSA – 160 EM
Line output 1V / 1kΩ
Output taps for speakers 4Ω & 8Ω (for direct connections)

T
70V & 100V (for use with LMT)

E
IS
AC: 220-240V / 50Hz
Power Supply

IR
DC: 24V (2 x 12V car batteries)
AC power consumption 300VA
DC power consumption 4A
Dimensions W 420 x H 155 x D 320 mm
Weight 13.6 kg approx.

PA System Ver 2.0 89

 Earthing of amplifier units
• Earthing of amplifier is necessary to provide greater safety for the
person handling the amplifier and protection for the amplifier in case
of faults.

ET
IS
• The connectivity of Earth to an amplifier is the metal chassis of the

IR
amplifier to the Earth or ground.
• The chassis does not carry electric current under normal operation.
But in the event of fault, when a live wire carrying current comes in
contact with the chassis, then this current would flow to earth.

PA System Ver 2.0 90

 T
PLANNING OF SOUND REINFORCEMENT SYSTEM

E
IS
IR

PA System Ver 2.0 91

A sound reinforcement system is governed mainly by the following
factors:
•Size
•Type
ET
IS
IR
•Location
•Audience to be covered
•Type of sound to be reproduced
•Desired psychological reaction on audience.

PA System Ver 2.0 92

 Indoor Installations
1) Size of auditorium
2) Area to be covered
3) Dimensions
4) Approximate size of audience
5) Actual volume of the auditorium in cubic feet.
6) Reverberation time, if known
7) Seating Capacity
8) Type and distribution of absorbing materials.
9) Location of source of pick up.
10) Desired position of microphone
ET
IS
11) Desired position of loudspeaker

IR
12) Ambient noise level.
13) Type of service.
i)   Voice or music reinforcement.
ii)   Remote pick up
iii)    Orchestra
iv)  Point Source illusion.
14) Frequency characteristics of microphone or pick up.
15) Amplifier
16) Available Audio Power.
17) Desired Coverage
18) Permissible Cost
PA System Ver 2.0 93
 Outdoor Installations
1) Area to be covered, in sq. ft.
2) Dimensions
3) Approximate size of audience
4)    Desired location of microphone
5) Desired location of loudspeaker.
6) Ambient noise level.

T
7) Loudest noise which the system should over-ride.

E
IS
8) Type of Service.
i) Voice or music reinforcement

IR
ii) Remote pick up.
iii) Orchestra
iv) Point Source Illusion.
9) Frequency Characteristics of Microphone
10) Amplifier
11) Audio power available
12) Desired coverage
13) Permissible Cost.

PA System Ver 2.0 94

 Technical requirement for quality reproduction
•Frequency response: The frequency response for the entire system
should be with in 3 dB from 100 Hz to 10 KHz. 

T
•Harmonic distortion: The total harmonic distortion of the entire
E
IS
system shall not exceed 5% at the rated power output of the
amplifier. 
IR
•Signal to noise ratio: The signal to noise ratio under normal
operating conditions of the amplifying systems as a whole with flat
operation of the tone control shall not be worse than 50 dB.

PA System Ver 2.0 95

Note: The normal operating conditions are those where sound
pressure level of 70 to 80 dB is maintained. 
•Sensitivity: System should be capable of direct operation from

T
input voltage rating 0.5mV to 1.5V.

IS
Acoustic Survey
E
IR
The object of an acoustic survey is to determine the acoustic
defects in relation to the location of the sound sources so that
necessary acoustic correction can be done to ensure an optimum,
acceptable sound distribution.
•ACOUSTIC DEFECTS:
Echo, Flutter and Reverberation
PA System Ver 2.0 96
• Echo: The sound reflection reaching a listener’s ear at least 1/15th
of a second after the original sound is termed as echo.

T
• Flutter: Where parallel surfaces like side walls exist, there is a
E
IS
tendency for the sound energy to decay in series of steps, rather

IR
like a series of echoes of diminishing intensity, where the interval
between successive step is the time of sound to be reflected from
one surfaces to the opposite surface. The effect is flutter.

PA System Ver 2.0 97

• Reverberation: It is an accumulation of echoes, one interfering with
and masking the other, so that the individual echoes cannot be
distinguished. It is the persistence of sound by reflection from

ET
surround surfaces after the source sound has ceased.

IS
• Reverberation is the collection of reflected sounds from the surfaces

IR
in an enclosure like an auditorium.
• It is a desirable property of auditoriums to the extent that it helps to
overcome the inverse square law drop-off of sound intensity in the
enclosure.

PA System Ver 2.0 98

 • However, if it is excessive, it makes the sound becomes
muddy, garbled.

ET
• To quantitatively characterize the reverberation, the

IS
IR
parameter called the reverberation time is used.

PA System Ver 2.0 99

Reverberation Time:
•In order to provide a reproducible parameter, a standard
reverberation time has been defined as the time for the sound to

ET
die away to a level 60 decibels below its original level. 

IS
•Around 2 seconds is desirable for a medium-sized, general purpose

IR
auditorium that is to be used for both speech and music.
•A classroom should be much shorter, i.e. less than a second. And a
recording studio should minimize reverberation time in most cases
for clarity of recording.

PA System Ver 2.0 100

• The reverberation time is strongly influenced by the absorption
coefficients of the surfaces and volume of the room.

T
• The absorption coefficient of a surface typically changes with
E
IS
frequency, so the reverberation time is likewise frequency
dependent.
IR
• A table of absorption coefficients can be used in calculations of
reverberation time.

PA System Ver 2.0 101

• Requisite for acoustic corrections: The type and extent of acoustic
defects are to be known, so that the acoustic correction can be
applied.

T
• Effect of parallel walls: Parallel walls must be avoided as far as

E
IS
possible.

IR
• Effect of side walls: Random reflections from the side walls will
reduce the flutter and high efficiency absorbent material may be
used on the side walls to reduce the flutter.
• Areas opposite to sound source: Curvilinear surfaces and large areas
of reflection opposite to the sound normally give rise to echo and
they must be avoided.
PA System Ver 2.0 102
 ET
IS
PA System arrangement for VIP functions

IR

PA System Ver 2.0 103

 ET
IS
IR

PA System Ver 2.0 104

Selection of devices: 
•Microphones: Generally dynamic microphones are used for such
occasions, as these are having unidirectional characteristics, which help

ET
in reducing feedback/howling, and also having low impedance permits
long microphone leads.
IS
IR
•Connecting microphones: Use of more number of microphone
generally essential in large stages. In such cases, output from several
microphones should be connected to a mixing system and the common
output will be connected to Aux. of main amplifier.

PA System Ver 2.0 105

• Microphone cables carry low-level signal currents and are therefore,
susceptible for electrical interference.

T
• The microphone cables shall be isolated from power, loudspeaker

E
IS
and telephone cables.

IR
• Joints in the cables should be avoided as far as possible.
• The plugs and sockets used for microphone cables should have
strong self-cleaning contacts so as to eliminate noise and they shall
be non-reversible.

PA System Ver 2.0 106

• Microphone cables should be laid without sharp bends as far as
possible.
• Inside buildings, they may be laid on the floor along the walls or

ET
under the carpet to avoid any obstruction for the participants on
the dais.
IS
IR
• In case more no. of microphones are being used, numbering on
microphone stands is necessary for easy identification.
• Twisted pairs of conductors with sufficient insulation, screened
continuously with close mesh of tinned copper braid shall be
used.
PA System Ver 2.0 107
 Amplifying systems 
•The output power of the amplifying system should be so chosen as to
be capable of establishing clarity sound at any point amongst the
audience.

T
•The gain controls of the amplifying system should be so set that the
E
IS
signal reach each member of audience at comfortable listening level,

IR
i.e. during weak passage the signals are distinctly audible at each point,
while loud passage these do not cause annoyance.
•The amplifying system should have a gain sufficient to deliver the
required output power. However the level should not be less than 60
dB. 
PA System Ver 2.0 108
• The amplifiers should preferably be in multiples of 100W capacity,
one for each group instead of using high power sets for entire
installation.

ET
IS
• 100% standby amplifiers should be provided so that speech is not

IR
being held up due to defects in the working of amplifiers.
• Easy changeover arrangement for switching from defective amplifiers
to the standby amplifiers should be done by providing changeover
switches.
• Earthing should be done for all the amplifier systems properly.

PA System Ver 2.0 109

 Loud speakers 
•The number of loud speakers required, their location, direction and the
power input to the loud speakers installed will have to be decided with
the object of maintaining the intensity of reproduced sound above the
local noise level. 
ET
IS
IR
•The loud speakers used should have adequate power handling capacity
and should normally of high efficiency type.
• For better reproduction directional type of loud speakers (column)
should be used.

PA System Ver 2.0 110

• The vertical directivity pattern of the system should be such as to
feed the audience at uniform level.

T
• Column speakers are ideal for obtaining the vertical directivity
pattern.
IS E
IR
• The directivity of such speakers should be such as to provide
sufficient intelligibility at all points of the seated area and avoid
feedback to microphone.
• The spacing between two columns in a row should be approximately
8 meters apart.
PA System Ver 2.0 111
• When a number of loudspeakers are connected to the same
output circuit, matching transformers shall be used with
each loud speaker and connect to the 100V output line, so

ET
IS
that it consumes the rated power.

IR
Power supply: 
• It shall be ensured that reliable mains power supply is available
near the proposed location of equipment.

PA System Ver 2.0 112

• The installation should be normally operated from 230V single-phase
50Hz AC mains supply with voltage regulating device. 

T
• The system should also connect to 12/24V battery, which provides

IS E
continuous operation without any interruption. Changeover to

IR
battery operation is automatic when AC main supply fails. No battery
current is consumed when the amplifier is working on AC mains.

PA System Ver 2.0 113

 Installation  
1. All equipment should be robustly made and designed for continuous

T
operation. Equipment should be securely installed in such a manner

E
IS
as to have convenient access to all sides of it. 

IR
2. When the number of equipment is not large, they may be placed on
a table and wired. The positioning of the equipment is such that the
lengths of the inter connecting cable are kept minimum for
convenience.

PA System Ver 2.0 114

3. In case the number of equipment is large, it is desirable to mount
them in racks of suitable dimensions. The height of the rack will
depend upon the number of equipment to be mounted and

ET
accommodation available, ensuring that all manual controls are with

IS
IR
in easy reach.
4. The patch cords if used should be tested and neatly arranged to
avoid obstruction and should be easily identified.

PA System Ver 2.0 115

5. The items should be installed at appropriate time after other
arrangements like decoration, seating etc. are completed. This will

T
minimize the risk of damage or loss. The wiring for the loud speakers

IS E
and microphones may be laid just sufficiently in advance of the

IR
appropriate time for completing the installation so that preliminary
tests that may be necessary to decide on the type and position of
loud speakers could be made.

PA System Ver 2.0 116

 ET
IS
Special types of sound reinforcement systems

IR

PA System Ver 2.0 117

 1. Power Megaphone
2. Paging System

T
3. Centralized Sound redistribution system

E
IS
4. Intercommunications System

IR
5. Integrated Sound system
6. Train entertainment system
7. Portable P.A. System.

PA System Ver 2.0 118

 Power Megaphone

ET
IS
IR

PA System Ver 2.0 119

 Power Megaphone
• It is used where human voice has to be reinforced, and portability is

T
required.

IS E
• Typical applications are in ARTs, fire fighting, marine services and in

IR
crowd control.
• It consists of a sensitive carbon microphone, an efficient horn type
speaker, a battery made up of flash light cells, the entire unit
combined in a trigger operated assembly resembling a megaphone.

PA System Ver 2.0 120

 PAGING AND TALKBACK
• The paging and talk back system utilizes the horn type loud speaker

T
as a loud speaker as well as a microphone.

E
IS
• Yardmaster is provided with an amplifier, one microphone and a loud
speaker.
IR
• Audiovisual indications are provided on the Yard Master’s control
console.
• All the speakers are connected in voltage matching system.

PA System Ver 2.0 121

Paging and talk back loudspeaker equipments for use in Railway
Marshalling yards broadly consist of microphones, amplifiers,

ET
loudspeakers with associated line matching transformers, switching

IS
IR
equipments and control panels, the loudspeakers being connected to
the amplifiers and switching equipments through appropriate aerial
wires/cables and wiring, protectors and terminals.

PA System Ver 2.0 122

 Platform Announcement System
The location may be broadly divided into:

T
i) Platforms
ii) Circulating area
IS E
IR
iii) Waiting Rooms
iv) Restaurants.
• The distribution lines are divided into groups according to the
above.

PA System Ver 2.0 123

 Train Entertainment System
These consist of two basic systems:
i) Low Level System.

ET
IS
ii) High Level System.

IR
In type (i), each coach has its own amplifier, and in (ii) the main
amplifier is on the dining car and high voltage distribution line (100V) is
taken to each coach. For this arrangement, the entire rake of carriages
have to be wired internally and fitted with external coupling units.

PA System Ver 2.0 124

i) ‘Live’ voice announcements by the guard i.e., manual system.
ii) Pre-recorded announcements operated by the guard i.e., semi
automatic system.

ET
IS
iii) Pre-recorded announcements operated automatically during the

IR
progress of the train i.e., automatic system.
• In the automatic system, pre-recorded announcements are initiated
at appropriate points in the journey by special devices, which
measures accurately the distance traveled.

PA System Ver 2.0 125

 Conference System
•Conference system mainly consists of one Chairman unit, one
secretary unit, delegate units as desired and central amplifier with

E
connecting cable and loudspeaker system.T
IS
•Chairman unit: This unit specially designed for chairperson, who is

IR
chairing the meeting. It consists of built-in loudspeaker and highly
sensitive electret condenser microphone mounted on flexible
gooseneck arrangement.

PA System Ver 2.0 126

 Electret Condenser Microphone

ET
IS
IR

PA System Ver 2.0 127

 ET
IS
IR
Chairman Unit

PA System Ver 2.0 128

Chairman Unit: The microphone of the unit is equipped with a lockable
switch for speaking and a ring LED indicator for visual identification of
the speaker.

ET
IS
It will also have a non-lockable PRIORITY switch, which interrupts and

IR
mutes the delegates unit microphones. The built-in speaker has volume
control for setting desired volume levels.

PA System Ver 2.0 129

 ET
IS
IR
Delegate unit: These units are similar to chairman unit with the
exception of the priority switch not being provided.

PA System Ver 2.0 130

 ET
IS
IR
Secretary unit: This unit enables proceedings to be recorded through a
cassette recorder, for a stenographer present to take notes and to relay
pre-recorded messages if any to delegates. 

PA System Ver 2.0 131

 ET
IS
IR
Central Amplifier: It is provided for connecting conference units
consisting of chairman, secretary and delegate units.

PA System Ver 2.0 132

 ET
IS
IR
Amplifier Rear view

PA System Ver 2.0 133

 T
PHASING AND MATCHING METHODS IN SOUND

IS E
REINFORCEMENT SYSTEMS

IR

PA System Ver 2.0 134

 Phasing of Loudspeakers
•In a multiple loudspeaker system, when two or more driver units/loud
speakers are facing in the same direction and are installed in same area,
it is essential that their diaphragms/cones act in unison. For this action,

ET
the loud speakers must be connected in phase with each other is called

IS
IR
as phasing of loud speakers.
•Loud speaker manufacturers are providing some markings on the
winding part of the speaker for the purpose of perfect phasing.
•It may be in the form of a “red dot (.)” or + sign at one terminal and
“black dot (.)” or - sign on the other.

PA System Ver 2.0 135

The connections to the voice coil whether in series or in parallel, must
be made in such a manner that in any one instant all diaphragms
must be moving outward or inward in unison.

ET
Matching methods in sound distribution system

IS
Any system of connecting a number of speakers to an amplifier has to
serve two purposes:-  IR
a)Deliver the full available output of the amplifier, in correct
proportions, to the individual units of the system.
b)Do so efficiently.

PA System Ver 2.0 136

• The "correct proportions" is a matter of distribution, the realization
of full available output, efficiently, is a matter of matching by
impedance.
Impedance Matching

ET
• For correct transfer of power from the amplifier to the speaker

IS
IR
group, we require correct impedance matching.
• The effective impedance of the load should be matched with the
output impedance of the amplifier. For this, the distribution of
number of speakers connected to amplifier may be either in series,
parallel or combination of series parallel can be done.
• For connecting the speakers in impedance matching method to an
amplifier
PA System
the following procedure must be followed.
Ver 2.0 137
 Com 8Ω
4Ω
8Ω
16 Ω
8Ω

ET
IS
• When speakers are connected in series, the total impedance is the

IR
sum of the individual impedance of speakers.
• As shown in figure, each speaker will have an impedance of 8Ω; the
resultant impedance will be of 16 Ω. So for the perfect impedance
matching we will select the 16 Ω taping of the amplifier.

PA System Ver 2.0 138

 Group A Group B

Com.
16Ω
16Ω
4Ω

8Ω
16Ω 16Ω
16Ω

ET
IS
IR
Impedance of group A = R1+ R2 = 16+16 = 32 Ω.

Impedance of group B = R3+ R4 = 16+16 = 32 Ω.

PA System Ver 2.0 139

 Voltage Matching
• Connecting of loud speakers to the amplifier with line matching
transformers to either 70V or 100V tapping.
• This method is based on "constant voltage" system, which simplifies

ET
to a great degree the computation of the total impedance of the

IS
IR
system.
• It also permits the addition of speaker to an existing system, without
the recalculation of the load and source impedances so long as the
total power consumed by the loud speaker is less than or equal to
the amplifier rating.

PA System Ver 2.0 140

 ET
IS
IR
• To generate this high voltage, the amplifier is equipped with a step-
up transformer, which transforms the regular output voltage, in the
range of 15 to 30 Volts, up to the necessary 70V (or 100V
respectively).
PA System Ver 2.0 141
• These systems work by including transformers at the input to each
speaker and directly after the amplifier output (see fig.). The
transformers are used to convert the impedance of each speaker

ET
to a higher value, and to convert the amplifier output impedance
to a correspondingly high value.
IS
IR
• In a 100 volt line system, speaker impedances (with transformers)
may range from below 20 ohms to as high as 10,000 ohms or
more.
• But you won’t need to calculate the load impedance in ohms,
because of how the high impedance approach works. 
PA System Ver 2.0 142
 Connectivity in 70V constant voltage system

ET
IS
IR

PA System Ver 2.0 143

High impedance (100 volt or 70 volt line) systems have three major
advantages over low-impedance systems:
1)System impedance-matching is made much easier — it is simply a

T
matter of adding up speaker power taps and selecting an amplifier

IS E
rated for at least that much power plus an allowance for headroom.

IR
2)Line loss is greatly reduced, especially over long cable runs,
resulting in better performance and reduced cost compared to long
low impedance lines.
3)The amplifier output is electrically isolated from the speaker line
by the output transformer, protecting the output stage against a
grounded line.
PA System Ver 2.0 144
• Hence in such installations where the length of the cable is
substantial, line matching transformers (LMT) are being used in
voltage matching method, between the output of the amplifier and

ET
each individual speaker to be connected.

IS
• In a large installation requires a large number of speakers to be

IR
connected at a distance. As the distance increases the length of the
cable increases so the strength of the sound signal decreases.
• The primary side will be connected to output of amplifier to 100V
line and the secondary will be connected to loudspeaker. LMT will act
as a step-down transformer to the speaker.
PA System Ver 2.0 145
• Required impedance (Z) = E2/P

= (Output Voltage) 2
_________________

Desired power
ET
IS
So that, an amplifier employing a 100-volt output tap, the formula is

 
reduced to:
IR
Required impedance = 10,000
Desired power

PA System Ver 2.0 146

• Suppose you're connecting hundreds of speakers to a single 8-
ohm amplifier output. It can be difficult to wire the speakers in a
series-parallel combination having a total impedance of 8 ohms.

ET
• Also it is bad practice to run speakers in series because if one

IS
IR
speaker fails, all the speakers in series are lost. This changes the
load impedance seen by the power amplifier.
• With a 70V/100V system you can hang hundreds of speakers in
parallel on a single amplifier output if you provide a matching
load.

PA System Ver 2.0 147

• In addition, a 100V distributed system is relatively easy to design,
and allows flexibility in power settings.

T
• A low-impedance system might employ 30 speaker clusters spaced

IS E
100 feet apart, each cluster powered by a 1000W amplifier for

IR
extra headroom.
• A high-impedance version of that system might use only one
amplifier providing 70V/100V. The cost savings is obvious.

PA System Ver 2.0 148

 DISADVANTAGES OF 100V OPERATION
1.One disadvantage of a 100V system is that the transformers add
expense.

ET
2.Another disadvantage is that transformers can degrade the frequency

IS
IR
response and add distortion.

PA System Ver 2.0 149

 Installation
Here's a basic procedure that neglects transformer insertion loss:
1. Do NOT connect the 70V speaker line to the power amplifier
first. 
2.
ET
Install a transformer at each speaker location, or use

IS
IR
speakers with built-in transformers. 
3.Connect each speaker to its transformer secondary tap. The tap
impedance should equal the speaker impedance. 
4.Connect each transformer primary to the 100V line from the power
amplifier. Choose the tap that will deliver the desired wattage to that
speaker.
PA System Ver 2.0 150
5. Add the wattage ratings of all the primary taps. This sum must not
exceed the amplifier's wattage rating. If it does, change to a lower-
wattage primary tap of one or more transformers, or use a higher-

T
power amplifier.

IS E
6. Now connect the 100V speaker line to the 100V output of the

IR
amplifier.
As an example, suppose you are setting up a 100V system with 8-ohm
speakers and a 60W power amp. Connect the 8-ohm secondary taps
to each speaker. Suppose the total speaker wattage is 55 watts. This
is acceptable because it does not exceed the amplifier power rating
of 60 watts.
PA System Ver 2.0 151
• Here's a more detailed procedure that emphasizes impedance
matching:
1. Compute the minimum safe load.

ET
The minimum safe load impedance that can be connected to the
amplifier is given by Z = E² / P
IS
Where:
IR
Z = minimum safe load impedance, in ohms.
E = speaker line voltage (70V or 100V)
P = maximum continuous average power rating of power amplifier, in
watts.
PA System Ver 2.0 152
An example: For an amplifier rated at 100 Watts continuous
average power, the minimum load impedance that may be

T
connected safely to the 70.7V output.

IS E
IR
Choose transformer taps. Tap the primary at the desired power
level for the speaker, and tap the secondary at the impedance of
the speaker. The sum of all the power taps for all the speakers
should not exceed the power output of the amplifier.
PA System Ver 2.0 153
Note: Changing the power tap also changes the load impedance seen by
the amplifier. Raising the power tap lowers the load impedance, and

T
vice versa. Also, changing the power tap changes the SPL of the

E
IS
loudspeaker. Reducing the power tap by half reduces the SPL by 3 dB,

IR
which is a just-noticeable difference in speech sound level. If a
particular speaker is too loud or too quiet, you can change its power
tap.
Just be careful that the total power drain does not exceed the power
output of the amplifier.
PA System Ver 2.0 154
3. Connect the speakers together. Connect all the speaker-transformer
primaries in parallel. Run a single cable, or redundant cables, back to
the power-amplifier transformer secondary. But DON'T CONNECT IT
NOW. 
ET
IS
IR
4. Measure the load impedance. Before connecting the load, first
measure its impedance with an impedance bridge (a simple low-cost
unit is adequate).

PA System Ver 2.0 155

Here's why you must do this: If the load impedance is too low, the
power amplifier will be loaded down and may overheat or distort. It's a
myth that you can connect an unlimited number of speakers to a 70V
line.
ET
IS
IR
If the load impedance measures too low, re-tap all the speakers at the
next-lower power tap. This raises the load impedance. Measure again. 
Usually, it's no problem if the load impedance measures higher than the
matching value (the calculated minimum safe load impedance). The
system will work, but at reduced efficiency.

PA System Ver 2.0 156

Here's why you must do this: If the load impedance is too low, the
power amplifier will be loaded down and may overheat or distort. It's a
myth that you can connect an unlimited number of speakers to a 70V
line.
ET
IS
IR
If the load impedance measures too low, re-tap all the speakers at the
next-lower power tap. This raises the load impedance. Measure again. 
Usually, it's no problem if the load impedance measures higher than the
matching value (the calculated minimum safe load impedance). The
system will work, but at reduced efficiency.

PA System Ver 2.0 157

• Typically there is more than enough power available, so efficiency is
not a problem. If for some reason, the power is limited, then the

T
system should be wired for maximum power transfer.
E
IS
IR
• This occurs when the measured load impedance matches the
calculated minimum safe load impedance. If the load impedance
measures above this value, you can re-tap all the speakers at the
next-higher power tap and measure again. This tap change lowers
the load impedance.

PA System Ver 2.0 158

Recommended sizes of cables and their maximum distances:

T
0.75mm² 1.0mm² 1.5mm²

30 watt load 800m

IS E
1066m 1600m

60 watt load 400m

IR 533m 800m

120 watt load 200m 266m 400m

PA System Ver 2.0 159

 Effects of using 100v, 70v or 50v taps on amplifiers with
100v line speaker circuits:
Amplifier Tapping Speaker output
100v 100% - Full Power

T
70v 50% - Half Power (-3dB)

E
50v 25% - Quarter power (-6dB)

IS
Loss & Distance
1m 2m 4m

IR
Effects
SPL (dB) @ 1w 97 91 85
SPL (dB) @ 2w 100 94 88
SPL (dB) @ 4w 103 97 91
SPL (dB) @ 8w 106 100 94
SPL (dB) @ 16w 109 103 97
       
       

Add 3dB when power Deduct 6dB when

is PA
doubled
System Ver 2.0 distance is doubled 160
 ET
IS
IR

PA System Ver 2.0 161