STATISTICS AND

PROBABILITY
Science, Technology, Engineering and
Mathematics
Learning Objectives:
At the end of the lesson, the learner shall be able to:

1. Illustrate a random variable (discrete and continuous);

2. Distinguish between a discrete and a continuous random variable;
and
3. Find the possible values of a random variable.
4. Find the probabilities of a random variable
5. Construct a Discrete Probability Distribution
RECALL:
• Statistics is the science of conducting studies to collect, organize,
summarize, analyze, and draw conclusions from data.

• A population consists of all subjects that are being studied.

• A sample is a group of subjects selected from a population

RECALL:
• An experiment is any activity, which can be done repeatedly under
similar conditions.

• A sample space is the list of all possible outcomes of an experiment.

There are many ways on how to systematically list the possible

outcomes of a given experiment.
RANDOM VARIABLE
• A random variable is a variable whose possible values are
determined by chance.

• A random variable is typically represented by an uppercase letter,

usually , while its corresponding lowercase represents one of its
values.
Variables can be broadly classified as either qualitative or quantitative.

• Qualitative variables are variables that can be placed into distinct

categories, according to some characteristic or attribute.

• Quantitative variables are numerical and can be ordered or ranked.

Quantitative variables can be further classified into discrete and
continuous.
ACTIVITY 1!

Tossing a coin three

times
the number of heads from a coin tossed 3 times
1st toss 2nd toss 3rd toss Outcome No. of heads
H HHH 3
H
T HHT 2
H
H HTH 2
T
T HTT 1
H THH 2
H
T THT 1
T
H TTH 1
T
T TTT 0
In this example, the possible values of are , , or .
• Discrete random variables are those data that can be counted. These
variables can only take finite number of distinct values.
ACTIVITY 2!

Holding a
breath
the time (in seconds) a student can hold his/her breath

In this example, the possible values range between the lowest

and the highest values recorded by students. Hence, it is better
to express the possible values as an interval, such as , if the
lowest and highest values are and , respectively.
• Continuous random variables can assume an infinite number of
values between any two specific values. They are obtained by
measuring.
PRACTICE EXERCISES:
1. Classify the following random variables as discrete or continuous.

a. The number of defective computers produced by a manufacturer

b. The weight of newborns each year in a hospital
c. The number of siblings in a family of a region
d. The amount of paint utilized in a building project
e. The speed of a car
f. Lifetimes (in hours) of 15 iPod batteries
g. The number of students who passed Pre-Calculus
PRACTICE EXERCISES:
2. Suppose three cellphones are tested at random. Let be the random
variable representing the number of defective cellphones. List all the
possible outcomes and identify the values of the random variable .
PRACTICE EXERCISES:
2. Suppose three cellphones are tested at random. Let be the random
variable representing the number of defective cellphones. List all the
possible outcomes and identify the values of the random variable .

and
PRACTICE EXERCISES:
3. Two balls are drawn in succession without replacement from an urn
containing red balls and blue balls. Let be the random variable
representing the number of blue balls. List all the possible outcomes and
find the values of the random variable .
PRACTICE EXERCISES:
3. Two balls are drawn in succession without replacement from an urn
containing red balls and blue balls. Let be the random variable
representing the number of blue balls. List all the possible outcomes and
find the values of the random variable .

𝒙
POSSIBLE
OUTCOMES (values
of 𝑿)

𝐵𝐵 2

𝑅𝐵 1

𝐵𝑅 1

𝑅𝑅 0
PRACTICE EXERCISES:
4. Suppose a die is rolled. Let be the random variable representing the
number of dots shown on the top face. List all the possible outcomes
and give the values of the random variable .
PRACTICE EXERCISES:
4. Suppose a die is rolled. Let be the random variable representing the
number of dots shown on the top face. List all the possible outcomes
and give the values of the random variable .
 DISCRETE PROBABILITY
DISTRIBUTION
A discrete probability distribution consists of the values of a random
variables can assume and their corresponding probabilities.

Two requirements for a discrete probability distribution:

1. The probability of each value of a discrete random variable is between

and inclusive. That is .

2. The sum of all probabilities is . That is, .

EXAMPLE:
1. Suppose three cellphones are tested at random. Let be the random variable representing the number of
defective cellphones. List all the possible outcomes and identify the values of the random variable .
Construct its probability distribution.

and

Discrete Probability Distribution:

EXAMPLE:
2. Two balls are drawn in succession without replacement from an urn containing red balls
and blue balls. Let be the random variable representing the number of blue balls. List all the
possible outcomes and find the values of the random variable . Construct its probability
distribution.
𝒙
POSSIBLE
OUTCOMES (values
of 𝑿)
and
𝐵𝐵 2

𝑅𝐵 1

𝐵𝑅 1

𝑅𝑅 0

Probability Distribution:
red balls and blue balls

The values are and

Probability Distribution:
EXAMPLE:
3. Suppose a die is rolled. Let be the random variable representing
the number of dots shown on the top face. List all the possible
outcomes and give the values of the random variable . Construct its
probability distribution

and .

Probability Distribution:
PRACTICE EXERCISES:
1. When can we say that a distribution is a discrete probability
distribution?
2. Which of the following shows a discrete probability
distribution?
Discrete a.
probability
distribution
Not a discrete
probability
b.
distribution
Not a discrete c.
probability
distribution
PRACTICE EXERCISES:
3. A three-item true or false test is given to students as a quiz. Let the number of correct
answers be the random variable . What are the values of the random variable?

POSSIBLE OUTCOMES
PRACTICE EXERCISES:
4. From a box containing black balls and green balls, balls are drawn in succession. Each
ball is placed back in the box before the next draw is made. Let a random variable
representing the number of green balls that occur. Find the values of the random variable and
its probability distribution

POSSIBLE OUTCOMES
STATISTICS AND
PROBABILITY
Science, Technology, Engineering and
Mathematics
Learning Objectives:
At the end of the lesson, the learner shall be able to:
1. illustrate the mean and variance of a discrete random variable.
2. calculate the mean and the variance of a discrete random
variable.
3. interpret the mean and the variance of a discrete random variable.
4. solve problems involving mean and variance of probability
distributions.
Activity!
The frequency distribution below are the
Number of
scores of 40 students in a test. Compute the Score
Students
mean score.

• What is the solved mean?

• How is the mean of a frequency
distribution computed?
• What does the solved mean imply?
The Mean of a Discrete Random Variable
The mean of a discrete random variable is also called the
expected value of . It is the weighted average of the possible
values that the random variable can take.

Unlike the sample mean of a group of observations, which gives

each observation equal weight, the mean of a random variable
weights each outcome according to its probability, .
The mean or expected value of a discrete random variable ,
denoted by , is computed using the formula:

where:
discrete random variable
outcome or value of the random variable
probability of the outcome
Steps in solving the mean of a discrete random
variable:

1. Construct the probability distribution for the

random variable .
2. Multiply the value of the random variable by the
corresponding probability.
3. Add the results obtained in Step 2.
Example 1
Consider rolling a fair die. What is the average number of
spots that would appear?

Solution
Let be the number of dots on the top face. So, the
probability distribution of is given by
So, we have
So, we have

Thus, . This means that the

average number of spots that
would appear is 3.5. Although
the die will never show a
number, which is 3.5, this
implies that rolling the die
many times, the theoretical
mean would be 3.5.
Example 2
A security guard recorded the number of people entering the
bank every hour during one working day. The random variable
represents the number of people who entered the bank. The
probability distribution of is shown below.

What is the expected number of people who enters the bank

every hour?
Solution
Solution

So, Thus, the average number of

people entering the bank every
hour during working day is .
Example 3
One thousand tickets are sold at 100 pesos each for a
color television valued at 35 000 pesos. What is the
expected value of the gain if you purchase one ticket?
a. Construct its probability distribution.

b. Find the mean.

a. Construct its probability distribution
GAIN
₱
Win

Loss

b. Two things should be noted. First, for a win, the net gain is pesos, since
you do not get the cost of the ticket ( pesos) back. Second, for a loss, the gain
is represented by a negative number, in this case pesos. The solution, then, is
 Note that the expectation is pesos. This does not mean that
you lose pesos, since you can only win a television set valued at
pesos or lose pesos on the ticket. What this expectation means is
that the average of the losses is pesos for each of the ticket
holders.

Here is another way of looking at this situation: If you

purchased one ticket each week over a long time, the average
loss would be pesos per ticket, since theoretically, on average,
you would win the set once for each tickets purchased.
The Variance and Standard Deviation of a
Discrete Random Variable
The variance and standard deviation describe the
amount of spread, dispersion, or variability of the items in
a distribution.

A measure of spread for a distribution of a random

variable determines the degree to which the values of a
random variable differ from the expected value.
The variance of a discrete probability distribution of the
random variable , denoted by , is given by the formula:

where:
value of the random variable
probability of the random variable
mean of the probability distribution
Alternatively, the variance of a discrete probability
distribution of the random variable , denoted by , is given
by the formula:

where:
value of the random variable
probability of the random variable
mean of the probability distribution
The standard deviation of a discrete probability
distribution of the random variable , denoted by , is given
by the formula:

where:
value of the random variable
probability of the random variable
mean of the probability distribution
Steps in finding the variance and standard deviation:
(Using the ORIGINAL FORMULA)

1. Find the mean of the probability distribution.

2. Subtract the mean from each value of the random variable .
3. Square the results obtained in Step 2.
4. Multiply the results obtained in Step 3 by the corresponding
probability.
5. Get the sum of the results obtained in Step 4 to compute the
variance and extract the square root of the result to solve for
the standard deviation.
Steps in finding the variance and standard deviation:
(Using the ALTERNATIVE FORMULA)

1. Find the mean of the probability distribution.

2. Square each value of the random variable .
3. Multiply the results in Step 2 to their corresponding
probabilities.
4. Add the results obtained in Step 3.
5. Subtract the square of the mean from the result obtained in Step
4 to compute the variance and extract the square root of the
result to solve for the standard deviation.
Example 1
The number of cars sold per day at a local car dealership,
along with its corresponding probabilities, is shown in the
succeeding table. Compute the variance and the standard
deviation of the probability distribution by following the
given steps. Interpret the result.

Number of Cars
Using the alternative formula,
Using the alternative formula,

0.80
Interpretation:
Since , we say that the average of the squared differences or
deviations of the number of cars sold per day at a local car
dealership from the mean is .

Meanwhile, the standard deviation of indicates that the the

average of differences or deviations of the number of cars sold
per day at a local car dealership from the mean is .
Example 2
1. Suppose coins are tossed. Construct the probability
distribution for the random variable representing the
number of heads that appear. Compute for the variance
and standard deviation of the probability distribution.
Interpret the result
More Application:
Suit Sales
The number of suits sold per day at a retail store is shown in the
table, with the corresponding probabilities. Find the mean, variance,
and standard deviation of the distribution.

If the manager of the retail store wants to be sure that he has enough
suits for the next 5 days, how many should the manager purchase?

ANSWER:suits
Number of Credit Cards
A bank vice president feels that each savings account customer
has, on average, three credit cards. The following distribution
represents the number of credit cards people own. Find the mean,
variance, and standard deviation.

Is the vice president correct?

ANSWER:No, on average, each person has about 1 credit card.

Cellular Phone Sales
The probability that a cellular phone company kiosk sells X
number of new phone contracts per day is shown below. Find the
mean, variance, and standard deviation for this probability
distribution.

What is the probability that they will sell 6 or more

contracts three days in a row?

ANSWER:
STATISTICS AND
PROBABILITY
Science, Technology, Engineering and
Mathematics
Learning Objectives:
At the end of the lesson, the learner shall be able to:

1. Illustrate a normal random variable and its

characteristics;
2. Construct a normal curve; and
3. Identify regions under the normal curve corresponding to
different standard normal values.
 NORMAL
DISTRIBUTIONS
What is Normal?
Illustration 1
Suppose a researcher selects a random sample of adult women,
measures their heights, and constructs a histogram, the researcher gets a
graph similar to the one shown in figure below.
Illustration 2
If the researcher increases the sample size and decreases the width of the
classes, the histograms will look like the ones shown in the figures
below.
Illustration 3
Finally, if it were possible to measure exactly the heights of all adult
females in the given population, the graph will look like this.
Illustration 3
If we measure exactly the heights of all adult females in a population
and plot them, the histogram would approach what is called a normal
distribution, shown in the figure below.

Bell-shaped Curve or
Gaussian Distribution
Data values are evenly distributed about the mean
Data values fall to the right of the mean
Data values fall to the left of the mean
Note that the “tail” of the curve indicates the direction
of skewness (right is positive, left is negative).
Normal Distribution
 Normal Distribution

In a similar manner, the theoretical curve, called a normal

distribution curve, can be used to study many variables that are
not perfectly normally distributed but are nevertheless
approximately normal.
Normal Distribution
The mathematical equation for a normal distribution is

where:
= random variable
= population mean
= population standard deviation
Normal Distribution
Note that, in applied statistics, the area under a normal
distribution curve is used more often than the values on the y
axis. Therefore, when a normal distribution is pictured, the y
axis is sometimes omitted.
Normal Distribution
The shape and position of a normal distribution
curve depend on two parameters, the mean and the
standard deviation. Each normally distributed
variable has its own normal distribution curve, which
depends on the values of the variable’s mean and
standard deviation.
This figure shows two normal distributions with the same mean
values but different standard deviations. The larger the standard
deviation, the more dispersed, or spread out, the distribution is.
This figure shows two normal distributions with the same
standard deviation but with different means. These curves have
the same shapes but are located at different positions on the x
axis.
This figure shows two normal distributions with different means
and different standard deviations.
Normal Distribution
A normal distribution is a continuous, symmetric, bell-shaped
distribution of a variable.
Properties of Normal Distribution
1. A normal distribution curve is bell-shaped.
2. The mean, median, and mode are equal and are located at the center
of the distribution.
3. A normal distribution curve is unimodal (i.e., it has only one mode).
4. The curve is symmetric about the mean, which is equivalent to
saying that its shape is the same on both sides of a vertical line
passing through the center.
5. The curve is continuous; that is, there are no gaps or holes. For each
value of , there is a corresponding value of .
Properties of Normal Distribution
6. The curve never touches the axis. Theoretically, no matter how far
in either direction the curve extends, it never meets the axis – but it
gets increasingly closer.
7. The total area under a normal distribution curve is equal to , or . This
fact may seem unusual, since the curve never touches the axis, but
one can prove it mathematically by using calculus.
8. The area under the part of a normal curve that lies within standard
deviation of the mean is approximately , or ; within standard
deviations, about , or ; and within standard deviations, about , or .
Empirical Rule or 68-95-99.7 Rule

𝟑𝟒% 𝟑𝟒%
𝟐.𝟑𝟓 % 𝟏𝟑.𝟓% 𝟐.𝟑𝟓 %
𝟎.𝟏𝟓 % 𝟏𝟑.𝟓%
𝟎.𝟏𝟓 %
 Application
1. In the distributions shown, state the mean
and standard deviation.
2. What scores are found up to
standard deviation away from the
mean?

3. What percentage comprises the

range of scores in item no. 2?

4. What scores comprises 95% of

the data?
Application
Suppose that the distribution of the scores of senior high
school students in a test is normally distributed with mean and
standard deviation ,

1. Construct its normal curve.

2. Approximately how many percent of scores fall between
and ?
3. Approximately how many students scored between and ?
 Application

Suppose that the distribution of the scores

of senior high school students in a test is
normally distributed with mean and
standard deviation ,

1. Construct its normal curve.

 Application

2. Approximately how many

percent of scores fall between
and ?

3. Approximately how many

students scored between and ?
STANDARD NORMAL
DISTRIBUTION
 Since each normally distributed variable has its own
mean and standard deviation, as stated earlier, the shape and
location of these curves will vary.

In practical applications, then, you would have to have a

table of areas under the curve for each variable. To simplify
this situation, statisticians use what is called the standard
normal distribution.
Standard Normal Distribution
The standard normal distribution is a normal distribution with a
mean of and a standard deviation of .

𝟑𝟒% 𝟑𝟒%
𝟐.𝟑𝟓 % 𝟏𝟑.𝟓% 𝟐.𝟑𝟓 %
𝟎.𝟏𝟓 % 𝟏𝟑.𝟓%
𝟎.𝟏𝟓 %

−𝟑 −𝟐 −𝟏 𝟎 𝟏 𝟐 𝟑
Comparison

normal distribution standard normal distribution

 Formula

All normally distributed variables can be transformed into the

standard normally distributed variable by using the formula for
the standard score:
 Once the values are transformed by using the preceding
formula, they are called values. The value or score is actually
the number of standard deviations that a particular value is away
from the mean. The table gives the area (to four decimal places)
under the standard normal curve for any value from to .
 Finding Areas Under the Standard Normal
Distribution Curve

1. Draw the normal distribution curve and shade the area.

2. Locate the area for the value of from the area under the
standard normal curve table.

3. Make a statement about the obtained area.

 There are three basic types of problems, and all three are
summarized in the Procedure Table. Note that this table is
presented as an aid in understanding how to use the standard
normal distribution table and in visualizing the problems.
Case 1
To the left of any z value:
Look up the value in the table and use the area given.
Case 2
To the right of any value:
Look up the value and subtract the area from .
Case 3
Between any two values:
Look up both values and subtract the corresponding areas.
Finding the area under the normal
distribution curve:

The table gives the area under the normal

distribution curve to the left of any value
given in two decimal places.

For example, the area to the left of a

value of is found by looking up in the left
column and in the top row. Where the two
lines meet gives an area of
Example 1
Find the area to the left of
Example 2
Find the area to the right of
Example 3
Find the area between and .
Example 4
Find the z value such that the area to the left of it is
Example 5
Find the z value such that the area to the right of it is
Example 6
Find the z value such that the area under the standard
normal distribution curve betweenand thevalue is
NOTE:

If the values are less than , use the area .

If the values are greater than , use the area

STATISTICS AND
PROBABILITY
Science, Technology, Engineering and
Mathematics
Learning Outcomes:
At the end of the lesson, the learner shall be able to:

1. Convert a normal random variable to a standard

normal variable and vice versa; and
2. Compute probabilities and percentiles using the
standard normal table.
Recall:
Finding Areas under the Standard Normal Curve:
 Area to the left of any z value:
Look up the value in the table and use the area given.

 Area to the right of any value:

Look up the value and subtract the area from .

 Area in between any two values:

Look up both values and subtract the corresponding areas.
A Normal Distribution Curve as a Probability
Distribution Curve
A normal distribution curve can be used as a probability
distribution curve for normally distributed variables.

The problems involving probability are solved in the same manner

as how the problems are solved involving areas under the normal
curve.

That is why, for example, the area to the left of can be represented
by .
A Normal Distribution Curve as a Probability
Distribution Curve
Note:

In a continuous distribution, the probability of any exact value is

since the area would be represented by a vertical line above the
value. But vertical lines in theory have no area. So .
Example:
Find the probability of the following:
APPLICATIONS OF
THE NORMAL
DISTRIBUTION
Transforming the original variable to a
standard normal distribution variable
The standard normal distribution curve can be used to solve a wide
variety of practical problems. The only requirement is that the variable be
normally or approximately normally distributed.

To solve problems by using the standard normal distribution, transform

the original variable to a standard normal distribution variable by using the
formula
Example 1
A survey found that women spend on average ₱ on beauty
products during the summer months. Assume the standard
deviation is ₱ and the variable is normally distributed.
a. Find the percentage of women who spend less than ₱

b. Find the percentage of women who spend greater than ₱.

 A survey found that women spend on average ₱ on beauty
products during the summer months. Assume the standard
deviation is ₱ and the variable is normally distributed.

a. Find the percentage of women who spend less than ₱

 A survey found that women spend on average ₱ on beauty
products during the summer months. Assume the standard
deviation is ₱ and the variable is normally distributed.

b. Find the percentage of women who spend greater than ₱.

Example 2
Each month, a household generates an average of pounds of
newspaper for garbage or recycling. Assume the standard deviation
is pounds. If a household is selected at random, find the
probability of its generating between and pounds per month.
Assume the variable is approximately normally distributed.

If there are households, how many of them generates to pounds?

Each month, a household generates an average of pounds of newspaper for
garbage or recycling. Assume the standard deviation is pounds. If a
household is selected at random, find the probability of its generating
between and pounds per month. Assume the variable is approximately
normally distributed.

If there are households, how many of them generates to pounds?

Percentiles
Percentiles divide the data set into equal groups. Percentile rank indicates
the position of a certain value of a random variable with respect to the other
values.
Example 3
To qualify for a police academy, candidates must score in the top
on a general abilities test. The test has a mean of and a standard
deviation of . Find the lowest possible score to qualify. Assume the
test scores are normally distributed.
Example 4
For a medical study, a researcher wishes to select people in the
middle of the population based on blood pressure. If the mean
systolic blood pressure is and the standard deviation is , find the
upper and lower readings that would qualify people to participate
in the study.
Example 5
The national average SAT score (for Verbal and Math) is . If we
assume a normal distribution with standard deviation of , what is
the 90th percentile score?
Example 6
High School Competency Test
A mandatory competency test for high school sophomores has a
normal distribution with a mean of and a standard deviation of .

a. The top of students receive. What is the minimum score you

would need to receive this award?
b. The bottom of students must go to summer school. What is the
minimum score you would need to stay out of this group?
c. What is the percentile score?