Course Name:

Global Affairs
Course Code: GlTr
1012
Instructor:
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Ayenew Birhanu(PhD)
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Chapter One: International Relations

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Introduction
International relations
 comprehensive, broad and multidisciplinary
 contemporary international relations
 National interest, foreign policy, actors, globalization,
balance of power, cold war, multi-polar systems, major
contemporary global issues…..
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…contd
 International relations is not merely a field of study at
university but is an integral aspect of our(increasingly
international) everyday lives.
 Studying international relations enables students and
professionals to better comprehend the
 information we receive daily from newspapers, television
and radio.
 Today, international relations could be used to describe a
range of interactions between people,
 Groups, firms, associations, parties, nations or states or
between these and (non) governmental international
organizations
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1.1. Conceptualizing Nationalism, Nations and States

 Nationalism,

 Nations and States

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Nationalism

 Nationalism is the most influential force in international

affairs.
 It has caused the outbreak of revolutions and wars
across the globe.
 Heywood (2014), nationalism is the doctrine that asserts
the nation as the basic political unit in organizing society.
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Nationalism
 “a principle which holds that the political and national
unit should be congruent” (Ernest Gellner)
 “nationalism is, above all, political” (Michael Hechter)
 “nationalism is a political doctrine” (John Breuilly)
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Nationalism...
 Nnationalism is “an ideology which imagines the community in a
particular way (as national), asserts the primacy of this collective
identity over others, and seeks political power in its name,
ideally ... in the form of a state for the nation” (Spencer &
Wollman)
 Nationalism is a social and political movement
 one can understand nationalism as an organising political principle
that requires national homogenisation and gives absolute priority
to national values and goals ‘interests’ in aiming to achieve
‘national’.
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What do nationalists
want?
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What do nationalists want?

 Nationalist doctrine has 3 main claims:
 Nations are distinct and unique
 Loyalty to the nation is more important than other
interests and values
 The nation should have its own state
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The impact on global politics

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The impact on global politics

 The rapid emergence of new kinds of nationalism, the
formation of new nation-states, and the violent conflicts
has sometimes involved, have altered patterns of global
politics.
 They have stimulated new interventions by a variety of
state and non-state actors.
 These interventions have been justified in universalist
terms: human rights, democracy
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 Examinethe place of war in the evolution of the

European state system
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Nation and nation State

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Nation
 In common parlance, the words ‗nation‘, ‗state‘ and
‗country‘ are used interchangeably.
 According to Heywood, ‗nations are historical entities
that evolve organically out of more similar ethnic
communities and they reveal themselves in myths,
legends, and songs.
 A nation, in contrast to a state, constitutes a community
of people joined by a shared identity and by common
social practices.
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Nation state
Description Type of Definition Example

Nation-state State A state with its own nation Iceland

Multinational State A state with more than one Scotland and

state nation Wales in the
United Kingdom

Stateless nation Nation A nation which lacks its own Palestinians, the
state and Kurds
whose people are spread
across several
countries

Diaspora Nation A nation dispersed beyond a Jews

home state
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Nation-state

 Very few, if any, nation-states

 Iceland, Sweden, Japan, Greece are mostly culturally
homogenous with few minorities
 In today’s world, an example of a

pure nation-state is Iceland – a small country

whose population shares such a well-documented descent
that its birth records provide a perfect laboratory for
genetic research.
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Brainstorming questions

Q1) How do you understand

international relations

Q2) How is international relations

related to our daily lives?
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1.2. Understanding International Relations

 IR is not merely a field of study at university but is an
integral aspect of our everyday lives.
 Originally, the study of IR (a term first used by J.
Bentham in 1798)
 was seen largely as a branch of the study of law,
philosophy or history.
 Today, international relations could be used to describe a
range of interactions between people, groups, firms,
associations, parties, nations or states or between these
and (non) governmental international organizations .
 More obviously, events such as international conflict,
inter-national conferences on global warming and
international crime play a fundamental part in the study
of international relations.
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IR…
 Participation in international relations or politics is also
inescapable.
 IR is an integral part of our life. Now, we can’t isolate our
daily experiences and transactions from international
dimension
 One crucial feature of the world in which we live is its
interconnectedness – geographically, intellectually and
socially and thus we need to understand it.
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Historical background…
• Today’s policymakers search the past for
 patterns and precedents to guide contemporary
decisions.
• Largely, major antecedents to the contemporary
international system are found in European-centered
Western civilization.
• Thus, history of IR can be traced back to Westphalia
Peace Treaty of 1648, which ended the 30 years
religious war (1618-48) in Europe between Catholics
and Protestants. It was a devastating war.
• Until 1648, the Catholic Church in Rome was the
only institution to determine war, peace, diplomacy
& politicians were subject to it
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Cont…
• In Medieval Europe, small feudal fiefdoms were largely
unconnected had prevented the rise of centralized governmental
authority
• Nonetheless, following development of commerce/trading
routes and emergence of new business class, technology,
territorial expansion with new explorations, diplomacy,
education, history of ancient Greece civilization, the need to
separate church and state, and opposition to universalization of
Christianity, and fragmentation of Europe began to arise
• N. Machiavelli (1469- 1527), Italian philosopher and author of
The Prince, clearly articulated the need for the separation of
church and state
• He argued that morality does not exist in politics and leaders
should maximize state power through every means. Only state
interest must prevail!
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Cont…
• Thus, he became father of modern political philosophy
• The Westphalia Treaty ended hierarchical religious Papal
authority in Europe
• It transferred authority of determining the type of religion for
the people from the Church to monarchs
• Following Westphalia, monarchs gained authority to
determine politics & religious affairs within a given territory, i.e.
territorial state emerged; leading to secular & modern state
system.
 Secular authority gave rise to the principle that provided the
foundation for IR that has provided the foundation for IR
ever since, i.e. the notion of the territorial integrity of states-
legally equal and sovereign participants in an international
system.
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Cont…
• The treaty enabled all small states in Europe to achieve
sovereignty and leaders agreed not to either favor one
religion over another or fight for the sake of religious
differences
 It also led to institutionalization of diplomacy or diplomatic
practices and commercial activities
 The Westphalian state system was exported to America, Africa and Asia
through colonialism and ‘modernization’
 Although scholars wrote about inter’l politics before, formal
recognition of a separate discipline of IR occurred at the end of
the WWI with the establishment of a Department of IR at the
University of Wales in 1919
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Cont…
 Largely, it is impossible to separate the foundation of
the discipline of IR from the larger public reaction to the
horrors of the WWI
 At the outbreak of the WWI, the human cost of the war
were linked with the widespread notion that the old
international order, with its secret diplomacy and secret
treaties, was immoral.
 At the aftermath, a new academic discipline became
essential- a discipline devoted to understand & prevent
international conflict.
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Actors in International Relations

State Actors
 International Relations : traditionally focused on
interactions between states.
 Relationships between all sorts of political entities,
including international organizations, multinational
corporations, societies and citizens.
 All states have their own capitals, armies, foreign
ministries, flags and national anthems.
 states are also sovereig`n in relation to each other:
they act in relation to other states, declaring war,
concluding a peace, negotiating a treaty, and many
other things.
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Non-State Actors
 Non-state actors are also called transnational actors
1. Intergovernmental organizations (IGOs)
 Organizations whose members are national governments
 Fulfill a variety of functions and vary in size from just a
few states to virtually the whole UN membership
2. Non-governmental organizations (NGOs)
 Private organizations, some of considerable size and
resources
 Some have political purpose, some economic or technical
one
 More than 25,000
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Non state actors …..

3. Multinational Corporations (MNCs
 Companies that span multiple countries
 Often control greater resources and operate
internationally with greater efficiency, than many
small states
 May prop up (or even create) friendly foreign
governments but may also provide poor states with
much-needed foreign investments and tax revenues
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Levels of Analysis in International Relations

 The individual level
 International relations can be analyzed from the
perspective of individuals.
 For example, a Prime Minister, encountering the
leader of another state to negotiate an important
financial agreement, the head of a large corporation
adopting a policy to rescue their business
 Focusing on the individual level and, say, particular
actions of specific personalities in the public realm–be
they politicians, diplomats or bankers
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The group level

 A group-level analysis focusing on foreign policy would look,

 for example, at the role of lobbying groups and the way
they influence national decision-making on an issue.
 Group -level analysis would be more interested in the
actions of groups of individuals
 A group-level analysis could be interested in
activist/pressure groups
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The state level

 Referred to as the relative ‗state-centrism‘ of the
discipline.
 The state acts as the arena in which state officials,
politicians and decision-makers operate.
 The state is seen as the framework that encapsulates
society and as the main point of reference for the
individual.
 Main location of power within the international sphere

the Cold War

 Itwas an era in which much of international affairs
appeared to be run via state channels and in line with
particular state interests
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The state level

 States form the primary kind of actor in major
international organizations such as the UN.
 A state level analysis might be interested to look at
any one of the following:
 It can consider states as actors in their own right as if they
were clearly defined entities that have certain preferences,
 Look at their actions and decisions to find an answer to our
analytical questions
 It may look at how states interact with each other to deal
with the crisis – in other words, their foreign policy; and
react to international developments and trends; how they
cooperate, say, in the framework of international
organizations; etc
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The system level

 Conceive the global system as the structure or context
within which states cooperate, compete and confront
each other over issues of national interest
 Particularly important in that context is the distribution
of power amongst states
 unipolarity, bipolarity,multipolarity
 Inthis perspective, global circumstances are seen to
condition the ability and opportunity of individual states
and groups of states to pursue their interests in
cooperative or competitive ways.
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The system level …

 Need to consider global linkages that go beyond single
interactions between states.
 the issue outside the immediate control of any
particular state or group of states, such as
 the global economy,
 transnational terrorism or the internet.
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The Structure of International System

 Political power is usually distributed into three main
types of systems namely:
 (i) uni-polar system,
 (ii) bipolar system and,
 (iii) multipolar system.
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 These three different systems reflect the number of

powerful states competing for power and their
hierarchical relationship.
 In a uni-polar international system, there is one state
with the greatest political, economic, cultural and
military power and hence the ability to totally control
other states.
 On the other hand, in both bipolar and multipolar systems
there is no one single state with a greater power and
hence ability to control other states.
 ….contid
1. Unipolarity: The United States (1945-1949)
Bipolarity
2. Bipolarity: USA and the USSR (1949-1989)
Cold War period

3. Post 1991: Evolving towards

Multipolarity
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Models of the Balance of Power

Concentration of Power

uni-polar Bipolar Multi-

polar

More Concentrated Less Concentrated

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Power
 Power is the currency of international politics
 As money is for economics, power is for international
relations (politics)
 In the Int.l system, power determines the relative
influence of actors and it shapes the structure of the int.l
system
 That is also why it is often said that international
relations is essentially about actors‘ power relations in
the supra-national domain. It thus follows from this that
power is the blood line of international relations.
 Power can be defined in terms of both relations and
material (capability) aspects
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Anarchy
 Absence of authority (government) be it in national or
international/global level systems.
 within a country it refers to breakdown of law and
order
 in relations between states it refers to a system where
power is decentralized and there are no shared
institutions with the right to enforce common rules.
 International system has no power or actor over the
states
 ….As a result, the new international system was
characterized by constant tensions and threats of war
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Sovereignty
 Is Basic concept in IR
 It can be defined as an expression of:
 i)state‘s ultimate authority within its territorial entity (internal
sovereignty) and,
 (ii) the state‘s involvement in the international community
(external sovereignty).

 Denotes double claim of states from the international

system
 autonomy in foreign policy and
 independence/freedom in its domestic affairs.
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Theories of International Relations

 Idealism/Liberalism
 Liberalism in IR was referred to as a ‗utopian‘ theory
 Focus on the creation of a peaceful world by
integration
 states, nongovernmental organizations, and
intergovernmental organizations as key actors IOs (UN,
WTO, ICC) NGOs.
 Interdependent global society with international
institutions facilitating cooperation.
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Liberalism: Policy Prescriptions

 Multilateralism: IOs & International Law
 “Enlargement”: Encourage democracies :Liberal Democratic peace
theory

 Cosmopolitanism: Common humanity and foreign policy

 Foreign Aid / Human Rights, Humanitarian Intervention Stability
requires justice

  Idealists or Liberals focus on:

 the increase of freedoms
 evolution to a better condition which is beneficiary for all states and
organizations
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Liberalism …
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Components of liberalism/idealism
Focus of analysis Enhancing global economic &
political cooperation
Major actors - States
- International Organizations
- NGOs and MNCs
Behavior of states - Not always rational actors based on self-
interest calculations
- Compromise bet/n various interests within
states
Goal of states - Economic prosperity
- international stability
View of human nature - Optimistic
Conditions of inter’l - Anarchic
system - Possible to mitigate anarchy
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Realism

 Focus on states and their relations in relation with power.

(military and political power)
 State need to maximize their security and chances of
survival.
 Quest for military and/or economic security; Balance of
Power
 Based on self-interest ( World War II as the vindication of
their theory)
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Realism: Policy Prescriptions

 Balance Power: Ignore culture, moral

considerations in foreign policy; obey only
dictates of maximizing your power relative to
others.
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Components of realist theory

Focus of analysis Struggle for power in anarchic
inter’l system
Major actors States

Behavior of states Rational, unitary actors

Goals of states Enhance power, security

View of human Pessimistic

nature
Conditions of Anarchic, self-help system
inter’l system
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Critiques:
 Itunderestimates the role of international
institutions, norms, rules in shaping behavior of
states & promoting cooperation
 States are not the only actors and cannot be unitary
decision makers
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Structuralism/Marxism
 Argues that a capitalist society is divided into two contradictory
classes –
 the business class (the bourgeoisie) and the working class (the
proletariat).
 They believe that economic structure determines politics
 The conduct of world politics is based on the way that the world
is organized economically
 They contend that the world is divided b/n
 “Haves” (Economically Developed Countries)
 “Have not” (Least developed Countries/ weak/poor)
 To change this, structuralists form a radical restructuring of
economic system
 They suggest the design to end uneven distribution of wealth
and power
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Structuralism …
 Structuralists can be divided in two major camps:
 A, Marxist Theorists
 Marxism is the best known strand of structuralist thought
 It holds that the economic (material) order determines
political History, the current situation and the future are
determined by economic struggle, called dialectical
materialism
 Marxists see capitalism as inherent source of economic evil
 They also believe that capitalist based system must be
overturned & replaced with domestic and international
socialist system before economic equity can be achieved
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Marx’s Theory of Historical Progression

Communism

Socialism

Capitalism

Feudalism

Basic Communism
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B, Dependecia Theory
 This theory sometimes, referred to Neo-Marxist and
Economic Radical theory
 They argue that the exploitation of Least Developed
Countries by Economically Developed Countries is
exercised through indirect control
 Economically developed countries drive based on their
own interests that include:
Cheap primary resources
External markets
Profitable investment opportunities
Low wage labor etc …
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Constructivism
 The international system is not something ‘out there’
like the solar system. It does not exist on its own.
 It exists only as an inter subjective awareness among
people; in that sense the system is constituted by ideas,
not by material forces.
 It [the international system] is a human invention or
creation not of a physical or material kind but of a
purely intellectual and ideational kind.
 It is a set of ideas, a body of thought, a system of
norms, which has been arranged by certain people
at a particular time and place
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Critical Theories
 Established in response to mainstream approaches in
the field, mainly liberalism and realism
 Critical theories are valuable because they identify
positions that have typically been ignored or
overlooked within IR.
 They also provide a voice to individuals who have
frequently been marginalized, particularly women
and those from the Global South.
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Chapter Two:
Understanding Foreign Policy and
Diplomacy

 Introduction
 National Interest
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Defining National Interest

 Refers to set of values, orientation, goals and
objectives a given country would like to achieve in its
IR.
 It has been the main driving force that determines the
contents of foreign policy
 K. Holsti, defines as an image of the future state of
affairs and future set of conditions …
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National Interest…
 Foreign policy can subordinated to a principle of national
interest.
 The total task of foreign policy is to preserve national
interests peacefully and rationally.
 The goals and objectives of any state foreign policy constitute
national interest as a basis.
 Even if the national interests of states vary in that detail, core
national interests are the same for different countries.
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National Interest…

 The minimum essential components of the national interest

of any state are:

 Security,

 National development, and

 World order
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Criteria‘s used to determine the national interest of states?

 Operational Philosophy
 Depending on time, location, your orientation toward the
world around you, and in particular the action of your
predecessors -you may choose one of two major style of
operation
 First, act in a bold and sweeping fashion.
 Up on taking office, introduce major new practices, policies, and
institutions and discontinue others.
 The second major style of operation is to act in carefulness,
probing, and experimental fashion
 The decision maker in an incremental orientation assumes that
political and economic problems are too complex to proceed with
bold initiative without worrying about their consequence.
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Ideological Criteria:
 Most of the time, governments employ ideological
criteria and establish their relations
 They may identify their friends or enemies countries
using the litmus test of ideology.
 During cold war, the ideology of communism and
capitalism had been often used to establish cooperation
or conflict with countries.
 Hence, national interest may be shaped by underlying
ideological orientations of the regime in power.
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Moral and Legal Criteria:

 Moral behavior, in international politics involves
keeping your promise –
 treaties,

 avoiding exploitation and uneven development between the

developing countries and the developed ones

 Acting legally means, abiding by the rules of

international law to the extent that such rules are
identified and accepted
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Pragmatic Criteria:
 As pragmatist, your orientation is low key, matter of
fact, not on emotions and professions
 On the basis of the scientific analysis of cost and
benefit or merit and demerit to your country interest,
 the practical utility of merit of your action will be
counted other than morality and personal sentiments.
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Professional Advancement Criteria:

 Inthis case, action may be manipulated and adjusted in
consideration of professional survival and growth.
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Partisan Criteria:

 Here you tend to equate the survival and the success of

your political party, or ethnic or religious origin with
the survival and success of your country.
 You may tend to equate the interest of your
organization (the army, the foreign office, and so forth)
with the national interest
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Foreign Dependency Criteria:

 These criteria usually applies to less developing
countries, who had fallen under the yoke of colonialism,
and now, even after political independence
 These countries are still dependent on their ex-colonial
states for technical aid, expertise and technology,
sometimes even for their security.
 As a result of this, the less developing countries face
difficulties to defend and promote their national interest.
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 Discuss in groups whether there is a single criteria

in determining national interest of states?
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Understanding Foreign
Policy and Foreign Policy
Behaviors
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Understanding Foreign Policy and Foreign Policy Behaviors

 Foreign policy refers to the sets of objectives and
instruments that a state adopts to guide its relation with
the outside world.
 The objectives of foreign policy which a state wants to
achieve are in one way or another related to national
interest.
 national interest is often considered as the objectives of
foreign policy of a state.
 something that a state would like to achieve in its
external relations with others
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FP..
 Involves general purposes, priority of goals to be
realized and achieved
 It also encompasses specific strategies and instruments,
economic and diplomatic tools that states employ to
achieve their objectives.
 These objectives, visions and goals state aspire to
achieve is commonly referred as national interest. All
states would like to promote their national interest
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Foreign Policy Objectives

classifications of foreign policy objectives is based on the

combination of the three criteria:
(1) The value placed on the objective;

(2) The time element placed on its achievement; and

(3) The kind of demands the objective imposes on other
states in international system.
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FP Objectives
 Based on the above stated criteria, the objectives can be classified as:
 (1) core values and interests
 (2) middle range goals and
 (3) universal long range and goals-

 Core Interests and Values (Short Range Objectives)

 most frequently related to the self preservation of political and economic
systems, the people and its culture, and the territorial integrity of a state.
 These are short-range objectives because others goals cannot be realized
if the existence of the state and its political units are not ensured.
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Middle Range Objectives

 This particular category is comprised of :
 economic uplift of the people,
 raising their life standard, enhancing prestige and status of
the nation, and
 expansion both territorial, as well as ideological.
 Foreign policy aims at achieving economic prosperity,
as only an economically prosperous nation is to play
more assertive role in international politics.
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Long- Range Objectives

 Plans, dreams, and visions concerning the ultimate
political or ideological organization of the international
system.
 in pursuing long range goals, states normally make
universal demands
 long range visions and dreams may have international
repercussions as far as they are complemented by the
capabilities and powers
 After the Communist Revolution of 1917 the Russian communist
leaders, Lenin and Stalin reiterated that they would endeavor to
expand communist ideology through the every nook and corner of
the Globe, as to them the capitalist system was defective and
exploitative in its very nature.
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Foreign Policy Behavior: Patterns and Trends

 Foreign policy behavior refers to the actions states
take towards each other.
 It is important to note that these actions usually are
not as ends in themselves
 Arnold Wolfers, suggested that all foreign policy
behavior ultimately boils down to three possible
patterns:
 (1) self-preservation (maintaining the status quo);
 (2) self-extension (revising the status quo in one‘s own
favor);
 (3) self-abnegation (revising the status quo in some else‘s
favor).
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Foreign Policy Dimensions

 Dynamic

Foreign policy behavior can be broadly classified

along three crucial dimensions:

1. Alignment
2. Scope and Interest
3. Modus operandi or Method of Operation
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 1. Alignment : the tendencies to choose to ally with some

countries or remaining neutral changes with time in
response to changing circumstances and policy behavior
 3 patterns of alignment tendencies
 Alliances
 Neutrality
 Non Alignment
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FP Dimensions…
 2. Scope and Interest : the scope of which a country
decides to what extent it engages itself in
international affairs or it follows a policy of
isolationism
 3. Modus operandi or Method of operation: states
exhibit certain characteristics behavior and patterns to
pursue their goals. These set of patterns could be either
Multilateralism or activism
 Multilateralism refers to seeking joint solutions to
problems through institutions like the UN than
bilateralism
 80

Instruments of Foreign Policy

Diplomacy
 Diplomacy can be defined as a process between actors
(diplomats, usually representing a state) who exist within a
system (international relations) and engage in private and public
dialogue to pursue their objectives in a peaceful manner.
 The interaction one state has with another is considered the act
of its foreign policy.
 Diplomacy is not foreign policy and must be distinguished from
it.
 It may be helpful to perceive diplomacy as part of foreign policy
 When a nation-state makes foreign policy it does so for its own
national interests
 This act typically takes place via interactions between
government personnel through diplomacy.
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Rules of Effective Diplomacy

 Be realistic:

 Be careful about what you say:

 Seek common ground:

 Understand the other side:

 Be patient:

 Leave avenues of retreat open:

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Economic Instruments of Foreign Policy

 Tariff:
 Quota:
 Embargo/ban/:
 Loans, Credits:
 Foreign Aid:
 Military Aid:
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Overview of Foreign Policy of Ethiopia

 Foreign Policy during Tewodros II (1855-1868)
 Throughout its long history, Ethiopia has been in many
ways connected to the outside world.
 Ethiopia has a long history of diplomatic relations with
the outside world.
 ‘Modern Ethiopia’ is understood as Ethiopia after
Tewdros-II.
 Throughout his reign Tewodros tried to develop a
dynamic foreign policy that reached out beyond the
Horn Region.
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 He sought the Western Christian world to recognize

his country and help him to modernize his country.
 Moreover, as Keller has put it ―”he appealed
specifically to Britain, France and Russia as Christian
nations to assist him in whatever ways possible in his
fight against the Turks, Egyptians and Islam”.
 Attempted to establish his diplomatic relations to fight
his immediate enemies claiming Christianity as
instrument of foreign policy
 85
Foreign Policy during Yohannes IV (1872-1889)

 Yohannes IV succeeded Tewodros II.

 Like his predecessor, Yohannes considered Islam as a
threat to the territorial integrity of the polity.
 Indeed Egypt tried to put a serious security threat in its
continued attempt to invade the country under many
pretexts,
 yet its motive was to control the source of Blue Nile.
 Yohannes IV gave priority to diplomacy than military
confrontation.
 86

Contnd…
 Moreover, Yohannes IV concluded agreements externally
with the British and Egyptians.
 He signed peace treaties and commercial agreements.
 The Hewett Treaty (1884) with Anglo-Egyptians was one
of the eminent treaties concluded during his reign.
 These, however, were not successful as Egypt faced
subsequent defeat both at of Gundet and Gura
respectively (Keller)
 87

Foreign Policy during Menelik II (1889-93)

 Menelik was the King of Shoa region before his
coronation as the Kings of Kings of Ethiopia.
 He had expanded his sphere of influence towards the far
South and East incorporating new areas and communities
peacefully or otherwise
 Before the death of Yohannes Italy had good diplomatic
relation with Menelik with the objective of weakening its
immediate enemy in the North, Yohannes
 Following the death of Yohannes, however, Italy
continued to be the main challenge in the North.
 88

 scramble of Africa was heightened. Italy expanded

towards the hinterland of Ethiopia from its first hold of
Bogess, later named Eritrea, and Missawa port crossing
Tekeze river.
 The emperor followed double track diplomacy to contain
or reverse Italy‘s expansion and maintain the territorial
integrity of his country.
 One of the remarkable treaties was the ‗Wuchalle‘
friendship and peace treaty where the parties agreed to
avoid war and solve the problem peacefully
 89

 However, the emperor‘s diplomatic endeavor with Italy

failed to result in peace due to Italy‘s misinterpretation
of the controversial article 17 of the ‘Wuchalle’ treaty.
 According to the Italian version, Ethiopia failed under
the protectorate of the former which then led to the
abrogation of the ‗Wuchale‘ treaty by Ethiopia in 1893.
 On other hand the emperor was preparing himself by
accumulating military ammunitions to defend the
aggression from any side of colonial powers
 As a result, Italy prepared for war and started its
systematic penetration of the country from the north.
 90

Policy during Emperor Haile Selassie I (1916-1974)

 To ensure the legal and diplomatic security of the state,
he wanted the friendship of the Europeans.
 He made Ethiopia, a member of the League of Nations.
 Ethiopia’s policy objectives to enter in to the League of
Nations as a member were:
 To make Ethiopia’s defense the responsibility of external power
via the collective security mechanism ;
 To show Ethiopia’s belief in the power of diplomacy in
international relations;
 It was a gesture to show that Ethiopia is a modern and an
independent sovereign state i.e. the strategy was to cut the
intention of the colonial power’ expansion to Ethiopia.
 91

 His idea of consolidation of power at home and his

intention of having many friends abroad was interrupted
by the Italian invasion.
 In the post independence period the most important
foreign policy agenda of the Emperor was to reduce the
British dominance in Ethiopia and in the Horn of Africa.
 Britain after 1941 dominated important positions. The
British predominantly controlled the military and the
economy.
 In 1945 the emperor met president Roosevelt of America
in Egypt secretly.
 This was aimed at finding other ally.
 92

Policy during Emperor Haile Selassie I ….

 Emperor Haile Sellassie had different stand as far as
British was concerned.
 For one thing he wanted to remove the British from the
Horn of Africa because she was dominating the region.
 Secondly, he wanted the British because had it not been
for the British support, Emperor Haile Sellassie would
not have defeated the challenges of the first Woyane
Rebellion of the Rayas.
 93

Policy during Emperor Haile Selassie I…

 Anyways the Emperor chose the United States of

America than the British.
 This is because,
 The USA was able to give technical and military assistance
in the post war period. This is related with the fact that the
Second World War has exhausted other powers in many
aspects.
 The USA is an emerging economic power. The perception
was that the USA was able to give ‘liberal’ economic
assistance that is not tied to any conditional ties.
 As a result in 1953, Mutual Defense Agreement was
signed between the two. For security purpose the treaty
had a positive contribution for the Emperor.
 94

 In general, the foreign policy principles of the Imperial

Regime as identified by Professor Ayele Nugussie are
three:
 1. When there is good will all international disputes will be
resolved peacefully. Therefore, one of the objectives was
peaceful resolution of international conflicts.
 2. His continued belief in the membership to and support of
international organizations. Collective security continued to be
another major principle of the government. The failure of the
League of Nations in 1935 to safe Ethiopia from Italian
invasion did not make him stop believing in collective security.
Being member also implies recognition.
 3. Strong defense capacity
 95

Policy during Emperor Haile Selassie I…

 Itcan be also stated that the diplomatic and neutrality
position of Ethiopia made the OAU to be established in
the soil of Ethiopia
 Ethiopia’s active involvement in the Non-Alignment
Movement after 1955 was also part of the continuation of
Ethiopia’s support to international originations.
 During this time when the world was divided in to two
blocs ideologically, Afro-Asian countries took a neutralist
position.
 Ethiopia wanted to diversity friendship, assistance and
diplomatic support.
 96

Foreign Policy during the Military Government (1974—1991)

 The military regime that took control of state power in
1974 adopted a foreign policy largely oriented to
socialist ideology.
 The primary objectives of the foreign policy were
survival of the regime and maintaining the
territorial integrity of the country.
 Apart from these, restructuring the society along
socialist lines was also considered as the foundation for
the foreign policy motives at home.
 The major strategy to achieve the stated objectives
heavily focused on building the military capability of
the country.
 97

 The Dergue regime was actively involved in African

politics.
 The military regime supported Africa issues or liberation
movements.
 Ethiopia’s prestige in Africa also continued.
 Bringing the country’s foreign policy with in the orbit of
the Eastern bloc was the dramatic reversal.
 This was highly influenced by the 1977/78 Ethiopia-
Somalia War.
 Soviet Union was the willing and capable power to assist
the military regime to channel weapons.
 98

 It was the Cubans who sent troops to fight the Somalia

aggressions and weapons were from Soviet Union.
 The regime became friendly with Libya, South Yemen
and the former Eastern European states especially with
East German.
 However, the Dergue’s foreign policy was not
successful in winning the support of the West.
 99

The reasons for the failure of the Dergue’s foreign

policy were:
 The regime cracked down by the various opposition
groups. Its choice of using force to put down its opposition
groups changed the minds of the masses
 It is external relation with Western Europe was not positive
rather it was abysmal.
 Bad human rights record because of Red Terror
 Famine and hunger that become recurrent under the regime
 The Dergue’s turn to the Soviet Union. To weaken
Mengistu the west supported TPLF and EPLF.
 100

The Foreign Policy of Ethiopia in the Post 1991

 Ethiopia‘s foreign policy is driven primarily by the quest to ensure

national interest and security.
 To ensure the survival of the multi- national state.

 National interest of the country is understood in terms of realizing

the real interest of the people mainly democracy and
development.
 It refers to the primary interest of the people to live freely from
poverty, disease and ignorance
 In this regard, foreign policy has been considered as an instrument to
solve the domestic problems of the country, including; lack of good
governance, instability and lack of economic development
 101

 Theforeign policy of Ethiopia has been designed to

create favorable external environment
 to achieve rapid economic development and build up democratic
system.
 The primary strategy in realization of these goals is to
put the focus on domestic issues first.
 This strategy is called an ―inside-out approach.
 Theinside out approach would help to reduce the
countries vulnerability to threat.
 102

 At diplomatic level, economic diplomacy is adopted to

strengthen the domestic efforts in fighting poverty and
address the issues of development.
 ED involves attracting foreign investments, seeking markets
for Ethiopian exportable commodities, seeking aid and
confessional loans too.
 The Security and Foreign Policy of the country also
indicated that Ethiopia would adopt a kind of East-look
policy.
 Ethiopia appreciates the East Asian countries economic
successes and development paths.
 The other foreign policy strategy is building up the
military capability of the country.
 103

synthesis
 Though strategies of all regimes sometimes differ the
primary foreign policy objective of all the three regimes
remained the maintenance of the territorial integrity and
independence of the country.
 To this end the three regimes used a combination of
both military force and diplomacy to address both
internal and external challenges depending on the
circumstances.
 104

Chapter Three:
International Political Economy
(IPE)
 105

Unit Objectives:
 After the completion of this unit , you will be able to:
 Explain the meaning and nature of International Political
economy
 Identify and analytically distinguish the most influential
theoretical perspectives of International Political economy
 Figure out the most common national political economy
systems/models in the world and their major divergences
 Identify and examine the core issues, governing
institutions and governance of International Political
economy
 106

Meaning and Nature of International Political Economy (IPE)

 There is no universal agreement on how IPE should be
defined.
 This in turn implies that defining the concept is not as simple or
straightforward as one might expect
 Definitions are important because it is the definitions that tell
us what to include in our analysis and what to leave out.
 IPE ―is the study of the tension between the market, where
individuals engage in self-interested activities, and the state,
where those same individuals undertake collective action.
 107

IPE….
 The above stated definition asserts two significant
subjects of International Political Economy:
 (a) markets, which are composed of self-interested
individuals and
 (b) states, which are the primary political institutions of
the modern international system.
 Yet, the definition misses other important side of the
story
 We have also equally or even more powerful (than
states) non-state actors in global politics
 108

IPE….
  IPE examines the interdependence of politics and
economics in the international system.
 Like political economy, it views political and economic
reality as two sides of the same coin.
 Like international relations, it generally adopts a
systemic perspective and views states as primary
actors.
 The study of IPE springs from an international
economy that transcends place within which states,
bound by territory, interact.
 109

 IPE Questions :
 How does the international economy affect
domestic politics and/or domestic economic
realities (and vice versa)?
 Who benefits from activity/outcomes in the
international economy?
 Can order be attained in the international
economic system?
 Can collective action be achieved within the
international economy?
 110

Theoretical perspectives of International Political

Economy
 There are three major theoretical (often ideological)
perspectives regarding the nature and functioning of the
International Political economy:
 Liberalism ,
 Marxism, and
 Nationalism (mercantilism).
 111

Mercantilism/nationalism:
 Foundation: Adam Smith‘s (1723–1790 ;
 Friedrich List(1789–1846) as the intellectual father of
the mercantilist thought)
 Defends a strong and pervasive role of the state in the
economy – both in domestic and international trade,
investment and finance.
 Emphasizes on the importance of BoP surpluses in trade
with other countries and
 To this end it often promotes an extreme policy of
autarky to promote national economic self-sufficiency
 Defended even a much more sophisticated and
interventionist role of the state in the economy
 State should also play a disciplinary role in the economy
 112

Mercantilism/nationalism…
 Mercantilist thought in the contemporary international
political economy is found in the recent experience of
the Japanese, South Korean, Taiwanese and Chinese…
 However, these states the East Asian economies used the
term developmental state approach‘
 113

Liberalism:
 Foundations: David Ricardo
 It defends the idea of free market system
 i.e free trade/trade liberalization and free financial and
Foreign Direct Investment (FDI) flows).
 Advocate's of free trade believes that
 it reduces prices,
 raises the standard of living for more people,
 makes a wider variety of products available, and contributes to
improvements in the quality of goods and services
 Ifcountries focused on what they do best and freely
trade their goods with each other, all of them would
benefit.
 The concept that captures this idea is also known as
comparative advantage.
 114

Liberalism ….
 However, the theory of comparative advantage has been
undermined by the current wave of economic
globalization.
 The growth MNCs complicates global trading.
 The production of goods and services is strongly influenced by
costs, arbitrary specialization, and government and corporate
policies.
 These developments thus mark a shift from the
conventional theory of comparative advantage to what is
known as competitive advantage.
 115

Marxism
 116

Marxism
 Following the collapse of the Soviet Union in the 1990‘s
and the apparent embrace of the free market economy by
a significant number of developing countries .
 Essential elements can be found in the overall corpus
of Marxist writings.
 Materialist approach to history
 General view of capitalist development
 Normative commitment to socialism
 117

Contemporary theories IPE

 Contemporary theories of International political
economy
1. Hegemonic Stability Theory (HST):
 Is a hybrid theory containing elements of mercantilism,
liberalism, and even Marxism.
 Its closest association, however, is with mercantilism.
 HST emerged because of economic troubles that
bedeviled Europe and much of the world in the Great
Depression of the 1920s and 1930s
 During its explanatory power to the Great Depression,
HST has thus influenced the establishment of the
Bretton Woods institutions (IMF and WB)
 118

Structuralism:
 is a variant of the Marxist perspective and starts
analysis from a practical diagnosis of the specific
structural problems of the international liberal capitalist
economic system whose main feature is center-
periphery (dependency) relationship between the North
and the South which resulted in an “unequal (trade and
investment) exchange.”
 it spread from Latin America to other countries in Asia
and Africa in 1950’s and advocates import substitution
based on protectionist policies and the domestic
promotion of manufacturing over agricultural and other
types of primary production
 119

Developmental State Approach

 Is a variant of mercantilism
 it advocates for the robust role of the state in the process of
structural transformation.
 refers to a state that intervenes and guides the direction and pace of
economic development.
 core features of developmental state;
 Strong interventionism:
 Existence of bureaucratic apparatus to efficiently and effectively
implement the planned process of development

 Existence of active participation and response of the private sector to

state intervention

 Regime legitimacy built on development results that ensured the

benefits of development …
 120

Survey of the Most Influential National

Political Economy systems in the world

 The American System of Market-Oriented

Capitalism
 121

The American System …..

 Founded on the premise that:
 Economic activity is to benefit consumers while
maximizing wealth creation;
 The distribution of that wealth is of secondary
importance.
 The American economy does approach the neoclassical
model of a competitive market economy
 The American neoclassical model rests on the
assumption that markets are competitive
 where they are not competitive, competition should be
promoted through antitrust and other policies.
 122

The American System …..

 The American economy is appropriately characterized as

a system of managerial capitalism.
 The Economy was profoundly transformed by the late
19th emergence of huge corporations and the
accompanying shift from a proprietary capitalism to one
dominated by large, oligopolistic corporations
 Management was separated from ownership,
 123

The American System …..

 The role of the American government in the economy is
determined not only by the influence of the neoclassical
model on American economic thinking
 But also by fundamental features of the American political
system.
 Authority over the economy is divided among the executive,
legislative, and judicial branches of the federal government
and between the federal government and the fifty states.
 Whereas the Japanese Ministry of Finance has virtual
monopoly power over the Japanese financial system
 In the United States this responsibility is shared by the
Treasury, the Federal Reserve, and several other powerful
and independent federal agencies
 124

 Most of the American economists opposed to industrial

policy
- distribution of industries should be entirely left for
the mkt
This is the assumption that all industries are created
equal and that there is no strategic sectors
 125

The Japanese System of Developmental Capitalism

 Ever since the Meiji Restoration (1868), Japan‘s
overriding goals have been making the economy self-
sufficient and catching up with the West.
 In the pre–World War II years this ambition meant
building a strong army and becoming an industrial power.
 Since its disastrous defeat in World War II
 however, Japan has abandoned militarism
 and has focused on becoming a powerful industrial and
technological nation
 These political goals have resulted in a national economic
policy for Japan best characterized as neo-mercantilism
 126

 It involves state assistance, regulation, and protection of

specific industrial sectors
 Many terms have been used to characterize the distinctive
nature of the Japanese system of political economy:
 developmental state capitalism, collective capitalism,
welfare corporatism, competitive communism,
network capitalism and strategic capitalism
 127
Important elements of the Japanese economic
system
 Emphasis on economic development,
 the key role of large corporations in the organization of the
economy and society,
 resistance to FDI
 primacy of the producer over the consumer,
 the close cooperation among government, business, and labor.
 state plays central role in the economy
 Trade protectionism , Export led growth
 128

“Developmental state capitalism”

 statemust play a central role in national economic
development and in the competition with the West
 Despite the imperative of competition, the Japanese
frequently subordinate pursuit of economic efficiency to
social equity and domestic harmony.
 Japanese provided government support for favored
industries,
 “Infant industry” protection system deserves special attention
 129

The policies Japan has used to promote its infant

industries

 Taxation, financial, and other policies that encouraged

extraordinarily high savings and investment rates.
 Fiscal and other policies
 Strategic trade policies and import restrictions that
protected infant Japanese industries against both
imported goods and establishment of subsidiaries of
foreign firms.
 Government support for basic industries, such as steel,
and for generic technology, like materials research.
 Competition (antitrust) and other policies favorable
 130

The German System of Social Market Capitalism

 The German economy has some characteristics similar to
the American and some to the Japanese systems of
political economy, but it is quite different from both in
other ways
 Germany, like Japan, emphasizes exports and national
savings and investment more than consumption
 However, Germany permits the market to function with
considerable freedom; indeed, most states in Western
Europe are significantly less interventionist than Japan
 131

German system of…

 The German system of political economy attempts
to balance social concerns and market efficiency.
 The German state and the private sector provide a
highly developed system of social welfare
 “welfare state capitalism”
 132

D/s among National Political Economy Systems

 (1) the primary purposes of the economic activity of the

nation,
 (2) the role of the state in the economy, and
 (3) the structure of the corporate sector and private
business practices.
 133

Survey of the Most Influential National

Political Economy systems in the world
 134

The American System of Market-Oriented Capitalism

 Founded on the premise that:

 Economic activity is to benefit consumers
while maximizing wealth creation;
 The distribution of that wealth is of
secondary importance.
 The American economy does approach the
neoclassical model of a competitive market
economy
 The American economy is appropriately
characterized as a system of managerial
capitalism.
 135

The Japanese System of Developmental Capitalism

 elements of the Japanese economic system:

 Emphasis on economic development,

 the key role of large corporations in the organization of the
economy and society,
 resistance to FDI
 primacy of the producer over the consumer,
 the close cooperation among government, business, and labor.
 state plays central role in the economy
 Trade protectionism , Export led growth
 136

The German System of Social Market Capitalism

 The German economy has some characteristics
similar to the American and some to the
Japanese systems of political economy, but it is
quite different from both in other ways
 The German system of political economy
attempts to balance social concerns and market
efficiency.
 The German state and the private sector provide
a highly developed system of social welfare
 “welfare state capitalism”
 137

D/s among National Political Economy Systems

 (1) the primary purposes of the economic

activity of the nation,
 (2) the role of the state in the economy,
and
 (3) the structure of the corporate sector
and private business practices.
 138

Core Issues, Governing institutions

and Governance of International
Political Economy
 139

International Trade and the WTO

 What is International Trade?
 International trade is the inter-country
flow of goods and financial resources.
 It is considered to be part of the
production structure (a set of
relationships that determine what is
produced, where, by whom, how, for
whom and at what price) of political
economy.
 140

World Trade Organization

 Is an international organization
which sets the rules for global trade.
 This organization was set up in 1995
as the successor to the GATT .
 1947 General Agreement on Tariffs
and Trade (GATT)
 International Monetary Fund (IMF)
• Lender of last resort
• Maintain stable exchange rates
• Prevent balance of payments crises
• Conditionality/structural adjustment
 World Bank
• Designed to aid in rebuilding Europe
• Mission has expanded to aid poor countries in
efforts at:
o Poverty elimination
o Infrastructure development
o Building governance capability (corruption,
financial syst ems)
Exchange Rates and the Exchange-
Rate System
 An exchange rate is the price of one national currency in terms of another.
 two main exchange rate systems : fixed and floating exchange rate.
 floating-rate system:
 the value of a currency is determined solely by money supply and money
demand.
 this system exists only when there is absolutely no intervention by
governments or other actors capable of influencing exchange-rate values
through nonmarket means.
 fixed-rate system: the value of a particular currency is fixed against the
value of another single currency or against a basket of currencies.
 144

Chapter Four: Globalization

and Regionalism
 145

Objectives
 After successfully completing this chapter students should be able
to:
  Conceptualize the concepts of globalization and regionalism
  Expose themselves with the contemporary debates on the essence
and direction of globalization
  Develop a position regarding the essence and effects of
Globalization
  Analyze the impacts of globalization on Africa, Ethiopia and the
developing world
  Explain the theoretical caveats and practice of regionalism and
regional integration
  Explain the mutual interaction between regionalism and
globalization
146
 147

Definition of Globalization
 The term globalization derives from the word globalize,
which refers to the emergence of an international
network of economic systems.

 It is the process of interaction and integration among

people, companies, and governments worldwide.

 The worldwide movement toward economic, financial,

trade, and communications integration.
 148

Definition of Globalization

 In general terms globalization is an economic,

political, technological, and socio-cultural process
where the importance of state boundaries decreases
and the countries and their people live in an
integrated global system.

 The term has become particularly popular in IPE and

in cultural studies.
 149

Definition of Globalization
 150

Dimensions of Globalization

 Three main dimensions of globalization:

Economic Dimensions of Globalization

Socio-cultural Dimensions of Globalization

Political Dimensions of Globalization

 151

Economic Dimensions of
Globalization
 Economic globalization is one of the most frequently
used in discussions of development and trade.

 It is a process by which the economies of the world

become increasingly integrated leading to global
economy.
 It include : global finance and economy, multinationals,
networking, international trade and business, new labor
markets, new development cooperation
 152

Political Dimensions of Globalization

In political science, globalization idea has been
significant in thinking about ideology and in political
behaviour in terms of issue areas such as geopolitics and
human rights.

In terms of the environment and human rights clear

evidence of the need for global codes of conduct.

It include human right, international terrorism, war and

new security problems
 153

Socio-cultural Dimensions of
Globalization
Social globalization means processes whereby many
social relations become relatively delinked from
territorial geography, so that human lives are
increasingly played out in the world as a single place.

Cultural globalization refers to an emerging “global

culture”, in which people more often consume
similar goods and services across countries and use
of common language.
 Examples: use of English.
 154

History of Globalization
 It is hard to determine a specific moment when
globalization started or to describe exact stages of its
historical development.
 History shows no obvious time on which everyone will
agree.
 Although considerable groundwork for globalization was
laid in earlier times, the noun “globalization” entered a
dictionary for the first time in 1961.

 Generally speaking, commentators have linked

globalization:
 - to the rise of the information society,
 - the beginning of late capitalism,
 - the end of communism, and even the end of history.
 155

Global players or Institution of globalization

 Global players of globalization may be divided into

three categories:
 leading actors, or global corporations;
 supporting actors, or international governmental
organizations (IGOs); and
 international non-governmental organizations (NGOs).
 156

Global corporations /multinational corporations

 Global corporations, or multinational corporations (MNCs), are

defined as companies that have their home (or headquarters) in
one country, but have operations and investments in many
others.

 Examples of such corporations are the major automobile

manufacturers such as Ford, General Motors, and Toyota; high-
tech companies like IBM, Intel, and Motorola ……….

 What distinguishes global corporations from domestic

corporations is that the former compete globally, while the
latter compete only in their domestic market.
 157

Global corporations /multinational corporations

 Most MNCs, like Coca-Cola and General Motors, began

their commercial history as domestic companies and then
expanded abroad for a number of reasons.
 for additional markets,
 for raw materials,
 to take advantage of lower wages in order to keep costs down
 158

Supporting Actors /International

Governmental Organizations
 Internationalgovernmental organizations (IGOs) are governmental
organizations formed by agreements or treaties among nations.

 There are about 6,500 IGOs in existence today. Some of the most
prominent are :
 The International Monetary Fund (IMF);
 The World Trade Organization (WTO);
 The United Nations,
 The Asian Development Bank and the European Bank for
Reconstruction and Development and others
 159

Non-Governmental Organizations

 Non-governmental organizations (NGOs) are private organizations

that pursue activities to protect the environment, provide social
services, and undertake economic and community development.

 These organizations are independent from governments. Since they

are not funded by governments, they depend upon charitable
donations and voluntary service.

 NGOs have been classified according to whether they provide relief,

such as humanitarian aid, or help in economic development; whether
they are religious or secular oriented; or whether they are more
active in the private or the public sector.
 160

Argument for and against of Globalization

FOR AGAINST
 Globalization creates  Globalization leads to
employment and income income Inequality and
poverty.
 Foreign subsidiaries in  Globalization is being
developing countries exploited by
provide investment and multinational
employment and pay high corporations;
wages to workers. globalization exploits
workers.
 Globalization advances  Globalization causes
living standards. financial instability.
 161

Argument for and against of Globalization

FOR AGAINST
 Globalization creates jobs.  Globalization exports
jobs.
 Global companies are  Global companies place
working hard to improve environmentally degrading
their environmental industries in developing
performance. countries.

 It is foolish to believe that a  Globalization will result

world of 6 billion people will in the end of cultural
somehow form a diversity.
monoculture.
 162

Debates on globalization
 Is globalization a new process or a continuation of the
past?
 Is globalization connecting all or has marginalizing
effect?
 Is globalization leading to homogenization of culture
or heterogeneity?
 163

Debates on globalization
In this regard, there are three perspectives:
 1. The hyper-globalists,
 2. The skeptics, and
 3. Transformationlist
 164

The hyper-globalists
 In the present era we observe an existence of a single global
economy integrating the world's major economic regions.

 Today it is global finance and corporate capital, rather than

states, which influence organization, location and
distribution of economic power and wealth.

 Multilateral institutions of global economic surveillance,
especially the G7, IMF, World Bank and WTO, function to
manage this growing 'global market civilization'.
 165

The hyper-globalists

In this 'runaway world'

nation states
can no longer
effectively manage or regulate
their own national economies
166

Damena Tolessa ibsaabbageda2006@gmail.com

 167

skeptics
 Globalization is a phenomenon connected to the richest
countries
 There is no unified global economy
 The world is breaking up into several major economic
and political blocs
 Too much emphasis on footloose capital and a new global
capitalist order
168

Damena Tolessa ibsaabbageda2006@gmail.com

 169

Transformationlist
 Globalization determines new international order
 International relations are influenced by globalization
 States have to adjust their role to the new situation
 New institutions come into picture and new regulations
must be applied
170
 171

3 schools of thought – summary

 1. Hyperglobalizers
 one single global economy; end of state
 2. Skeptics
 3 major economical regional blocs; states less important

 3. Transformationalists
 new international order; states still important and in
control of economy
 172

Major attitudes to word globalization

 Always two major attitudes

1) PRO globalization

2) ANTI globalization
 173

PRO globalization

 Globalization is an excellent process of

the world development

 Only in the globalization effects can we

find the future of international relations

 It is a time of new world order adjusted to

new situations
 174

Anti-Globalization Movement
 The anti-globalization
movement developed in the
late 20th century to fight the
globalization of corporate
economic activity and the
free trade with developing
nations that might result from
such activity.
 175

Anti-Globalization Movement
 Globalization is all the evil in today’s
world and cares only about money
 It divides the world into rich and poor (North and South
of the world)
 It is the cause of all the global problems
 Members of the anti-globalization movement generally
advocate anarchist, nationalist, socialist, social
democratic or environmentalist alternatives.

 Although supporters of the movement often work

together, the movement itself is diverse.
 176

Defining Regionalism and Regional Integration

 Region can be defined as a limited number of states
linked together by a geographical relationship and by a
degree of mutual interdependence (Nye, 1968).
 177

Chapter Five

Major Contemporary Global Issues

 178

 One of the most important dynamics of the 21st

century is the shift in focus from International
Relations to Global relations and issues.
 And, more than ever before revolutions in
technology, transportation, and communication
and way of thinking that characterize
interdependence and globalization are exerting
pressures on nation-states that strengthen them in
some ways but weaken them in others.
 179

Con’t
 States that played leading roles in international
affairs are now dealing with their declining power
as global power is more diffused with the rise of
China, Brazil, India, and other emerging market
countries.
 180

Global Security Issues

 there are two main issues and challenges facing the
emerging new world order.

These are: terrorism and nuclear proliferation.

Global Terrorism The question: ‘who gets to define terrorism
and why?’ often complicates the task of defining terrorism.
Indeed, the saying ’some one’s terrorist is another’s freedom
fighter’ is often presented as a justification for the general
acceptance of war as a legitimate instrument of even
governments.
 181

Con’t
 Terrorism is defined by many as a global security
problem characterized by the use of violence in the
form of hostage taking, bombing, hijacking and other
indiscriminate attacks on civilian targets.

 In this sense, the world is thus today experiencing four
different types of terrorist organizations namely: left
wing terrorists, right wing terrorists, ethno-
nationalists/separatist terrorists and religious terrorists.
 182

Con’t
 Factors Conducive to Terrorism: Terrorism might
have many causes.
 socio-economic cause
 political cause
 psychological cause
 183

Con’t
 Domestic terrorism: occurs within the borders of
a particular country and is associated with
extremist groups.
 Nationalist terrorism: is closely associated with
struggles for political autonomy and independence.
 Religious terrorism: grows out of extreme
fundamentalist religious groups that believe that
God is on their side and that their violence is
divinely inspired and approved.
 184

Con’t
 State terrorism: is a cold, calculated, efficient,
and extremely destructive form of terrorism, partly
because of the overwhelming power at the disposal
of governments.
 Global terrorism: is partly an outgrowth of the
forces of globalization, which enable the different
kinds of terrorism to spread worldwide.
 185

Nuclear Weapons and Their Proliferations

 Reasons for the Proliferation of Weapons
 Super-power Rivalry during the Cold War
 Military Burden Sharing
 Regional Balance of Power
 Political, Military, and Economic Influence
 Economies of Scale
 Self-Reliance
 Economic Factors
 Ethnic Conflicts
 Authoritarian Regimes
 186

Global Environmental Issues

 Climate change and Global warming
Global Socio-economic Issues
 Migration and refugee problems
Global Cultural Issues
 Cultural (civilizational) clash and identity conflicts