CHAPTER SIX THE MUSCULAR SYSTEM

 The following terms are defined in the

glossary
 Action , Origin , Antagonist, Oxygen debt

Aponeurosis , Prime ,mover, Contraction

Synergist , ,Epimysium ,Sarcomere ,
Insertion ,Sliding ,filament ,mechanism
Innervation ,Tendon ,Myosin ,Tone
The muscular system
 The term muscle tissue refers to all the contractile
tissues of the body: skeletal, cardiac, and smooth
muscle. The muscular system, however, refers to
the skeletal muscle system: the skeletal muscle
tissue and connective tissues that makeup
individual muscle organs, such as the biceps
muscle. Cardiac muscle tissue is located in the heart
and is therefore considered part of the
cardiovascular system. Smooth muscle tissue of the
intestines is part of the digestive system, whereas
smooth muscle tissue of the urinary bladder is part
of the urinary system and so on
Functions of muscle tissue
 Through sustained contraction or alternating
contraction and relaxation, muscle tissue has
three key functions: producing motion,
providing stabilization, and generating heat.
 1. Motion: Motion is obvious in movements

such as walking and running, and in localized

movements, such as grasping a pencil or
nodding the head. These movements rely on
the integrated functioning of bones, joints,
and skeletal muscles.
 2. Stabilizing body positions and regulating the
volume of cavities in the body: Besides producing
movements, skeletal muscle contractions maintain
the body in stable positions, such as standing or
sitting. Postural muscles display sustained
contractions when a person is awake, for example,
partially contracted neck muscles hold the head
upright. In addition, the volumes of the body
cavities are regulated through the contractions of
skeletal muscles. For example muscles of
respiration regulate the volume of the thoracic
cavity during the process of breathing.
 3. Thermo genesis (generation of heat). As
skeletal muscle contracts to perform work, a
by-product is heat. Muscle contractions are
thought to generate as much as 85% of all
body heat.
 Physiologic Characteristics of muscle tissue

Muscle tissue has four principal

characteristics that enable it to carry out its
functions and thus contribute to
homeostasis.
 1. Excitability (irritability), a property of both
muscle and nerve cells (neurons), is the ability to
respond to certain stimuli by producing electrical
signal called action potentials (impulses). For
example, the stimuli that trigger action potentials
are chemicals-neurotransmitters, released by
neurons, hormones distributed by the blood.
 2. Contractility is the ability of muscle tissue to

shorten and thicken (contract), thus generating

force to do work. Muscles contract in response to
one or more muscle action potentials.
 3. Extensibility means that the muscle can be
extended (stretched) without damaging the
tissue. Most skeletal muscles are arranged in
opposing pairs. While one is contracting, the
other not only relaxed but also usually is
being stretched.
 4. Elasticity means that muscle tissue tends

to return to its original shape after

contraction or extension.
Muscle structure
 A. Connective Tissue Component
 A skeletal muscle is an organ composed mainly of
striated muscle cells and connective tissue. Each
skeletal muscle has two parts; the connective tissue
sheath that extend to form specialized structures
that aid in attaching the muscle to bone and the
fleshy part the belly or gaster. The extended
specialized structure may take the form of a cord,
called a tendon; alternatively, a broad sheet called
an aponeurosis may attach muscles to bones or to
other muscles, as in the abdomen or across the top
of the skull.
 A connective tissue sheath called facia
surrounds and separates muscles.
 There are three connective tissue components

that cover a skeletal muscle tissue. These are:

 1. Epimysium─a connective tissue sheath

that surrounds and separates muscle.

 2. Perimysium─a connective tissue that

surrounds and holds fascicles together.

 3. Endomysium─a connective tissue that

surrounds each muscle fibre.

 B. Microscopic structures
 The muscle bundles are composed of many

elongated muscle cells called muscle fibres. Each

muscle fibre is a cylindrical cell containing several
nuclei located immediately beneath the cell
membrane (sarcolemma). The cytoplasm of each
muscle fibre (sarcoplasm) is filled with myofibrils.
Each myofibril is a thread-like structure that extends
from one end of the muscle fibre to the other.
Myofibrils consist of two major kinds of protein
fibres: actins or thin myofilaments, and myosin or
thick myofilaments.
 The actins and myosin myofilaments form highly ordered
units called sarcomers, which are joined end-to-end to
form the myofibrils . Sarcomere is a structural and
functional unit of muscle tissue. The ends of a sarcomere
are a network of protein fibres, which form the Z-lines when
the sarcomere is viewed from side. The Z-lines form an
attachment site for actins myofilaments. The arrangement
of the actin and myosin myofilaments in a sarcomere gives
the myofibril a banded appearance because the myofibril
appears darker where the actin and myosin myofilaments
overlap. The alternating light (I-band) and dark (A-band)
areas of the sarcomers are responsible for striation
(banding pattern) seen in skeletal muscle cells observed
through the microscope.
Muscle contractions
 The thick myofilaments are composed of a
protein called myosin. Each myosin filament has
small regular projections known as crossbridges.
The crossbridges lie in a radial fashion around
the long axis of the myofilament. The rounded
heads of the crossbridges lie in apposition to the
thin myofilaments. The thin myofilaments are
composed of a complex protein called actin,
arranged in a double stranded coil. The actin
filaments also contain two additional proteins
called troponin and tropomysin.
 In a resting muscle fibre the myosin crossbridges
are prevented from combining with the actin
filaments by the presence of troponin and
tropomysin. When a nerve impulse reaches a
muscle fibre it is conducted over the sarcolemma
and in to the T-tubules, then to the sarcoplasmic
reticulum. The sarcoplasmic reticulum releases
calcium ions into the sacrcoplasm. The liberated
calcium ions combine with troponin causing it to
push tropomysin away from the receptor sites on
the actins filaments.
 Relaxation of the muscle fibres occurs when
the calcium ions are actively reabsorbed by
the sarcoplasmic reticulum thus allowing
troponin and tropomysin to again inhibit the
interaction of the actins and myosin filaments
(see Table 6-1 for summary of events in the
contraction of a muscle fibre).
 Energy Requirements for Muscle Contraction
Contraction o skeletal muscle requires
adenosine triphosphate (ATP). The ATP
releases energy when it breaks down to
adenosine diphosphate (ADP) and a
phosphate (P), some of the energy is used to
move the crossbridges and some of the
energy is released as heat.
 ATP→ADP + P + Energy (for crossbridge

movement) + Heat
 The ATP required for muscle contraction is
produced primarily in numerous mitochondria
located with in the muscle fibres. Because ATP is a
very short-lived molecule and rapidly degenerates
to the more stable ADP, it is necessary for muscle
cells to constantly produce ATP. ATP is produced by
anaerobic or aerobic respiration. Anaerobic
respiration, which occurs in the absence of oxygen,
results in the breakdown of glucose to yield ATP
and lactic acid. Aerobic respiration requires oxygen
and breaks down glucose to produce ATP, carbon
dioxide, and water
 Compared with anaerobic respiration, aerobic respiration
is much more efficient. The breakdown of glucose
molecule by aerobic respiration theoretically can produce
19 times as much ATP as is produced by anaerobic
respiration. In addition, aerobic respiration can utilize a
greater variety of nutrient molecules to produce ATP
than can anaerobic respiration. For example, aerobic
respiration can use fatty acids to generate ATP. Although
anaerobic respiration is less efficient than aerobic
respiration, it can produce ATP when lack of oxygen
limits aerobic respiration. By utilizing many glucose
molecules, anaerobic respiration can rapidly produce
much ATP, but only for a short period.
 Contractions for approximately 1 to 2 minutes.
Anaerobic respiration is ultimately limited by
depletion of glucose and a build up of lactic acid
within the muscle fibre. Lactic acid can also irritate
muscle fibres, causing short-term muscle pain.
Muscle pain that lasts for a couple of days following
exercise, however, results from damage to
connective tissue and muscle fibres within the
muscle. Muscle fatigue results when ATP is used
during muscle contraction faster than it can be
produced in the muscle cells, and lactic acid builds
up faster than it can be removed.
Types of muscle contraction
 Muscle contractions are classified as either
isotonic or isometric. In isotonic contractions,
the amount of tension produced by the
muscle is constant during contraction, but
the length of the muscle changes; for
example, movement of the fingers to make
fist. In isometric contractions, the length of
the muscle does not change, but the amount
of tension increases during the contraction
process
 Most movements are a combination of isometric
and isotonic contractions. For example, when
shaking hands, the muscles shorten some
distance (isotonic contractions) and the degree of
tension increases (isometric contractions).
Isometric contractions are also responsible for
muscle tone, the constant tension produced by
muscles of the body for long periods. Muscle tone
is responsible for posture; for example, keeping
the back and legs straight, the head held in
upright position, and the abdomen from bulging.
 The points of attachment of each muscle are
its origin and insertion . At these attachments
points, the muscle is connected to the bone
by a tendon. The origin is the most stationary
end of the muscle and the insertion is the end
of the muscle attached to the bone
undergoing the greatest movement. Some
muscles have more than one origin, but the
principle is the same−the origin act to anchor
 For example, the biceps brachii causes the radius to
move, resulting in flexion of the forearm. The
triceps brachii muscle has three origins; two on the
humerus and one on the scapula. The insertion of
the triceps brachii is on the ulna and contraction
results in extension of the forearm. Several muscles
contract while others relax to produce almost any
movement you can imagine. Of all the muscles
contracting simultaneously, the one mainly
responsible for producing a particular movement is
called the prime mover for that movement.
 The other muscles that help in producing the
movement are called synergists. As prime
movers and synergist muscles at a joint
contract, other muscles called antagonists,
relax. When those antagonist muscles
contract, they produce a movement opposite
to that of those prime movers and their
synergist muscles.
 Naming skeletal muscles
 Most of the skeletal muscles are named

according to one or more of the following

basis: 1. Direction of muscle fibres relative to
the midline of the body or longitudinal axis of
a structure Rectus means the fibres run
parallel to the midline of the body or
longitudinal axis of a structure. Example,
rectus abdominis
 Transverse means the fibres run
perpendicular to the midline longitudinal axis
of a structure. Example, transverse abdominis
Oblique means the fibres run diagonally to
the midline longitudinal axis of a structure.
Example, external oblique
 2. Location−structure to which a muscle is

found closely related Example: Frontal, a

muscle near the frontal bone Tibialis anterior,
a muscle near the front of tibia
 3. Size−relative size of the muscle Maximus
means largest. Example, gluteus maximus
Minimus means smallest. Example, gluteus
minimus Longus means longest. Example,
Adductor longus Brevis means short. Example,
Peroneous brevis
 4. Number of origins−number of tendons of
origin Biceps means two origins. Example,
biceps brachii Triceps means three origins.
Example, triceps brachii Quadriceps means four
origins. Example, quadriceps femoris
 5. Shape −relative shape of the muscle Deltoid
means triangular. Example, deltoid Trapezius
means trapezoid. Example, trapezius Serratus
means saw-toothed. Example, serratus anterior
Rhomboideus means rhomboid or diamond
shape. Example, Rhomboideus major 6. Origin
and insertion−sites where muscles originates
and inserts Example,
sternocleidomastoid−originates on sternum
and clavicle and inserts on mastoid process of
temporal bone.
 7. Action−principal action of the muscle
 Flexor: decrease the angle at a joint. Example, flexor
carpiradialis
 Extensor: increases the angle at a joint. Example,
extensor carpiulnaris
 Abductor: moves a bone away from the midline.
Example, abductor policis brevis Adductor: moves a
bone closer to the midline. Example, adductor longus
 Levator: produces an upward movement. Example,
levator labii superioris
 Depressor: produces a downward movement. Example,
depressor labii inferioris
 Supinator: turns the palm upward or
anteriorly. Example, supinator
 Pronator: turns the palm downward or

posteriorly. Example, pronator teres

Sphincter: control the size of an opening.
Example, external anal sphincter
 Tensor: makes a body part more rigid.

Example, tensor fasciae latae

 Rotator: moves a bone around its longitudinal

axis. Example, obturator externus

 Principal skeletal muscles Although there are
over 700 individual skeletal muscles in the
human body, an appreciation and
understanding of skeletal muscles can be
accomplished by concentrating on the large
superficial muscles and muscle groups.