General Education:

Mathematics

By: Alvin L. Naag

 COVERAGE:
Fundamentals of Mathematics
Plane Geometry
Elementary Algebra
Statistics and Probability
FUNDAMENTALS OF MATHEMATICS
I. THE REAL NUMBER SYSTEM
A. Sets of Real Numbers

“To be REAL, one must be…

Really Interested With Nature.”
 B. Number Properties
Property Definition Examples
Closure Property When we add or multiply any 20 + 35 = 55
element in a set of numbers, the 11 + 12 = 23
sum or product is a unique real 11 x 12 = 132
number which belongs to that same
set
Commutative Changing the position of the 20 + 35 = 35 + 20
Property addends or the factors does not 11 x 12 = 12 x 11
affect the sum or the product
Associative Changing the grouping of addends (1 + 2) + 3 = 6
Property in a sum or the grouping of factors 1 + (2 + 3) = 6
in a product does not change the (2 x 3) x 4 = 24
resulting sum or product 2 x (3 x 4) = 24
 B. Number Properties contd.
Identity Addition  0 is the identity  
Property  Any number added to 134 + 0 = 134
zero equals the number
itself
Multiplication  1 is the identity  
 Any number multiplied 253 x 1 = 253
by one equals the
number itself

Distributive Multiplication distributes over addition and 2(5 + 6) = 2(5) + 2(6)

Property of subtraction 2(11) = 10 + 12
Multiplication 22 = 22
over
Addition/Subtra
ction
B. Number Properties contd.
Inverse Addition  Additive inverse is an  
Property (Additive Inverse) integer that when added 10 + (-10) = 0
to another integer gives -6 + 6 = 0
a sum of zero (additive
identity).
 The sum of n + (-n) = 0
Multiplication  Multiplicative inverse or  
(Reciprocal) reciprocal of a number is 2x½=1
another number that ¾ x 4/3 = 1
when multiplied to the -2/5 x (-5/2) = 1
first number results to 1
(multiplicative identity)
 x times 1/x equals 1
C. Order of Operations (PEMDAS)
P – parentheses or grouping symbols
such as ( ), { }, [ ], fraction bar, , etc.
E – exponents
MD – multiply or divide from left to
right
AS – add or subtract from left to right
Example: Simplify 3(12 – 10) + 4(6 – 3)2 + 10 ÷ 5 x 2

= 3(12 – 10) + 4 (6 – 3)2 + 10 ÷ 5 x 2

= 3(2) + 4(3)2 + 10 ÷ 5 x 2
=3(2) + 4(9) + 10 ÷ 5 x 2
= 6 + 36 + 2 x 2
= 6 + 36 + 4
= 46
 D. Factors and Multiples
The factors of a number are the positive
integers that divide the number evenly without
a remainder.
Ex. Factors of 12 are 1, 2, 3, 4, 6, 12
The multiples of a number are the integers that
the number can divide without a remainder.
 Ex. Multiples of 6 are 6, 12, 18, 24, 30, 36, 42…
 E. Prime and Composite Numbers
*Prime Numbers – counting numbers with only
two distinct positive divisors/factors (i.e. 1 and
itself).
 e.g. 2, 3, 5, 7, 11, 13, 17, 19, 23 …
*Composite Numbers – counting numbers
greater than 1 with positive factors other than 1
and itself.
 e.g. 4, 6, 8, 9, 10, 12, 14, 15, 16 …
 *(1 is neither prime nor composite, it is a special number)
Prime Factorization – expressing a number as a
product of factors that are all prime numbers.
F. Divisibility Rules
A number is If…
divisible by
2 the number is even, or it ends in 0, 2, 4, 6, and 8
3 the sum of all the digits is divisible by 3 or if
continuously adding the digits of the resulting sum of
the digits will get 3, 6, or 9
4 the last two digits is divisible by 4
5 it ends in 0 or 5
6 the number is even and is divisible by 3
7 you double the last digit and subtract it from the rest,
the result is a multiple of 7
F. Divisibility Rules contd.
8 the last three digits is divisible by 8 or a multiple of 8
9 continuously adding the digits of the resulting sum of the
digits will get 9
10 it ends with 0.
11 the digits are the same and there’s an even number of
digits. If the digits are not the same, count the digits
from right, then add the numbers in the odd positions
and the even positions, and subtract the smaller sum
from the bigger, if the result is 0 or divisible by 11, so is
the original number.
 G. GCF and LCM
Greatest Common Factor (GCF) also referred to as
Greatest Common Divisor is the largest common
factor of two or more numbers. Remember that the
GCF can be equal or smaller than any of the given
numbers.
Least Common Multiple (LCM) is the smallest number
that two or more given numbers will divide without
remainder. LCM is usually larger than the numbers
but can be equal to any of the given.
Methods in finding the GCF and LCM of
two or more numbers
 1. Listing Method
 Example: Find the GCF and LCM of 30 and 45
 A.)
For GCF, List all the factors of the numbers in
ascending order and pick out the largest factor that is
common to both lists.
 Factors of 30 = {1, 2, 3, 5, 6, 10, 15, 30}
 Factors of 45 = {1, 3, 5, 9, 15, 45}
 Common Factors= {1, 3, 5, 15}
 GCF = 15
 Methods in finding the GCF and LCM of
two or more numbers
 1. Listing Method
 Example: Find the GCF and LCM of 30 and 45
 B.)For LCM, List some of their multiples in ascending order
and pick out the smallest non-zero multiple that is common
to both lists.
 Multiples of 30 = {30, 60, 90, 120, 150, 180, 210, 240, 270…}
 Multiples of 45 = {45, 90, 135, 180, 225, 270…}
 Common Multiples = {90, 180, 270, …}
 LCM = 90
 Methods in finding the GCF and LCM of
two or more numbers
2. Prime Factorization. Express the
numbers as products of their prime factors,
group the common factors by writing them
in the same columns. The product of the
common prime factors is the GCF. The
product of all the columns of factors is the
LCM.
 Methods in finding the GCF and LCM of
two or more numbers
3. Repeated Division by Primes

 Theproduct of the common divisor on the left (i.e. 2

and 3) is the GCF. The product of the common divisors
(2 and 3) multiplied by the product of the last row of
quotients (i.e. 3 and 5) will be the LCM.
Analyzing Test Items in MATH

GCF and LCM

(5 items)
FUNDAMENTALS OF MATHEMATICS
II. INTEGERS, FRACTIONS, DECIMALS,
AND SCIENTIFIC NOTATION
A. Integers are signed numbers
including zero. Numbers on the left of
zero in the number line are negative
integers, while those on the right of
zero are positive integers.
FUNDAMENTALS OF MATHEMATICS
II. INTEGERS, FRACTIONS, DECIMALS,
AND SCIENTIFIC NOTATION
Absolute value of a number n
represented by |n| is its distance
from zero in the number line or its
value disregarding the sign.
Example: |5| = 5, |-3| = 3
FUNDAMENTALS OF MATHEMATICS
II. INTEGERS, FRACTIONS, DECIMALS,
AND SCIENTIFIC NOTATION
B. Fraction is defined as a ratio or
quotient of two numbers.
 Example: 3/5 (3 is the numerator and 5 is
the denominator). 3/5 is the ratio of 3 to 5,
or the quotient when 3 is divided by 5
FUNDAMENTALS OF MATHEMATICS
II. INTEGERS, FRACTIONS, DECIMALS,
AND SCIENTIFIC NOTATION
*Unit fraction is a fraction with 1 as the
numerator.
*Whole numbers and integers are also
fractions with denominators equal to 1.
 *Proper fractions – the numerator is
less than the denominator Ex. 4/7
FUNDAMENTALS OF MATHEMATICS
II. INTEGERS, FRACTIONS, DECIMALS,
AND SCIENTIFIC NOTATION
 *Improper fractions – the numerator is greater
than the denominator Ex. 7/4
 *Mixed Number – the sum of a whole number
and a fraction Ex. 1 ¾
 *Complex Fractions – fractions whose
numerator or denominator is also a fraction Ex.
FUNDAMENTALS OF MATHEMATICS
II. INTEGERS, FRACTIONS, DECIMALS,
AND SCIENTIFIC NOTATION
 C. Decimals and Percents
FUNDAMENTALS OF MATHEMATICS
II. INTEGERS, FRACTIONS, DECIMALS,
AND SCIENTIFIC NOTATION
 Percent (%) – the number of parts taken from a
hundred. Per is a Latin word which means “for
every” and cent means a hundred.
FUNDAMENTALS OF MATHEMATICS
II. INTEGERS, FRACTIONS, DECIMALS,
AND SCIENTIFIC NOTATION
 D.Operations on Integers, Fractions, and
Decimals
 Each of the four fundamental operations (+, –, x, ÷) have
different rules when used with integers, fractions and
decimals. These rules will just confuse you so in this
review we will make just one rule: Befriend your
calculator. Since our exam permits the use of calculator,
let us take it to our advantage.
FUNDAMENTALS OF MATHEMATICS
II. INTEGERS, FRACTIONS, DECIMALS,
AND SCIENTIFIC NOTATION
Some Useful Keys in your Calculators
1. To enter negative integers, either of the negative sign
key or the minus key can be used or pressed before
the number.
2. To enter fractions, use the fraction key . The shift or
other function of this key is used for mixed fractions.
3. Percent symbol is the 2nd function of the grouping symbol
in some calculators.
FUNDAMENTALS OF MATHEMATICS
II. INTEGERS, FRACTIONS, DECIMALS,
AND SCIENTIFIC NOTATION
 4.Enter the formula or number sentence correctly and
your calculator will give you the right answer.
 5. To reduce a fraction to its lowest term, just input the
fraction or divide the numerator by its denominator, press
= key, the result will be in its lowest term.
 6. Syntax error on your display means you need to
double-check your entries.
FUNDAMENTALS OF MATHEMATICS
II. INTEGERS, FRACTIONS, DECIMALS,
AND SCIENTIFIC NOTATION
 E. Conversions involving Decimals, Percents, and
Fractions
 1. To convert decimal to percent, manually move the
decimal point two places to the right then put a % sign.
Example: 0.5 = 50%
 1.25 = 125%
 0.03 = 3%
FUNDAMENTALS OF MATHEMATICS
II. INTEGERS, FRACTIONS, DECIMALS,
AND SCIENTIFIC NOTATION
 2. To convert percent to decimal manually, replace the %
sign with a decimal point and move it two places to the
left. Using your calculator, just input the number
followed by the % sign then press = key, the result will be
its equivalent fraction. Press to change it to decimal.
 Example: 75% = 0.75
 5% = 0.05
 250% = 2.5
FUNDAMENTALS OF MATHEMATICS
II. INTEGERS, FRACTIONS, DECIMALS,
AND SCIENTIFIC NOTATION
 3.Pressing changes or converts the number from
decimal to fraction or vice verza. Shift of converts
improper fractions or decimals to a mixed number.
 Ex: 1 ½ = 1.5 = 3/2
FUNDAMENTALS OF MATHEMATICS
II. INTEGERS, FRACTIONS, DECIMALS,
AND SCIENTIFIC NOTATION
 F. Scientific Notation
A number is in Scientific Notation if it is written in the
form a.b x 10c, where a can only take the values of
counting numbers from 1 to 9 only, b can take any
positive values while c could be any integer. (Remember
that a.b is a decimal number.)
FUNDAMENTALS OF MATHEMATICS
II. INTEGERS, FRACTIONS, DECIMALS,
AND SCIENTIFIC NOTATION
 Converting Scientific Notation to Standard Decimal
Notation and vice verza
 *To convert scientific notation to decimal form, move
the decimal point as determined by c or the exponent of
10. The exponent tells how many places to move and its
sign tells the direction. Negative exponent means to move
to the left while positive means to the right.
 Example: 2.35 x 105 = 235 000 2.35 x 10-5 = 0.0000235
FUNDAMENTALS OF MATHEMATICS
II. INTEGERS, FRACTIONS, DECIMALS,
AND SCIENTIFIC NOTATION
 *To convert decimal to scientific notation, move the
decimal point to where it will land with only one non-zero
digit in its left side, then write x 10 with its proper
exponent. The exponent is determined by the number of
decimal place movement and its sign depends on the
direction of the movement: moving left yields a positive
exponent, while moving to the right means you have to
write a negative exponent.
 Example: 4 356 034 = 4.356034 x 106 0.0000002347 = 2.347 x
Analyzing Test Items in MATH

Fraction and
Numbers
(15 items)
FUNDAMENTALS OF MATHEMATICS
III. RATIO AND PROPORTION
 A. Ratio – a relation between two numbers a and b which
can be expressed in terms of quotient in the following
equivalent ways: a : b, a ÷ b, a/b, or
 Example: a.) 2 : 3 = 2 ÷ 3 = 2/3 =
 b.) What is the ratio of boys to girls if there are 12 boys
and 18 girls in the Grade 7-A class?
 Solution: 12 : 18 = =
FUNDAMENTALS OF MATHEMATICS
III. RATIO AND PROPORTION
 B. Proportion – an equality between two ratios. a : b = c :
d is a proportion if ad = bc. This can also be expressed as
= . In each form, b and c are called means while a and d
are called extremes.
 Extremes-Means Property states that in any proportion,
the product of the means is equal to the product of the
extremes. From a : b = c : d, we get ad = bc.
 Example: 2:5 = 4:10 = 2(10) = 5(4) = 20 = 20
FUNDAMENTALS OF MATHEMATICS
III. RATIO AND PROPORTION
 Finding the Missing Term of a Proportion
 Use the Extremes-Means Property to find the missing term
of a proportion.
 Example: 3 : 7 = 12 : n
3n= 7(12)
3n = 84
n = 28
FUNDAMENTALS OF MATHEMATICS
III. RATIO AND PROPORTION
 C. Kinds of Proportion
 1. Direct Proportion - as one quantity increases,
the other quantity also increases.
 Example: If 5 pieces of apples costs 20 Php,
how much would 15 pieces cost?
5 : 20 = 15 : x
 Solution: Equate the ratio of the terms in the
5x = (20)(15)
first condition to the ratio of the terms in the
5x = 300
second condition:
x = 60 Php
FUNDAMENTALS OF MATHEMATICS
III. RATIO AND PROPORTION
 2. Indirect Proportion – as one quantity increases, the other
quantity decreases.
 Example: A food ration can feed 20 chickens for 6 days, how
many days would it last if Joey has 30 chickens to feed?
 Solution: Equate the product of the terms in the first
condition to the product of the terms in the second condition.
(20 chickens)(6 days) = (30 chickens)(n days)
120 = 30n
n = 120 ÷ 30
n = 4 days
FUNDAMENTALS OF MATHEMATICS
III. RATIO AND PROPORTION
3. Partitive Proportion – one quantity is being
partitioned into different proportions.
 Example: A 250-centimeter wire is cut in the
ratio 1:3:6. Find the measure of each part.
 Solution: Add the terms of the ratio.
1 + 3 + 6 = 10
FUNDAMENTALS OF MATHEMATICS
III. RATIO AND PROPORTION
 Divide the whole measure that was partitioned by the
sum of the terms.
250cm ÷ 10 = 25cm
 Multiply the quotient to each term of the ratio to
find the measure of each part.
 1(25cm) = 25cm
 3(25cm) = 75cm
 6(25cm) = 150cm
FUNDAMENTALS OF MATHEMATICS
IV. PERCENTAGE, RATE, AND BASE
 A. Percentage Formula:
Part = Percent x Whole
Percentage = Rate x Base
 Percentage – the number before or after the word “is”
 Rate – the number usually in “percent” or %
 Base – the number usually appearing after the word “of”
5 is 25% of 60 5 = 25% x 60
 *Note: “of” usually means multiply, while “is” usually means equals
FUNDAMENTALS OF MATHEMATICS
IV. PERCENTAGE, RATE, AND BASE
 Formulas:


𝑷
𝑩 𝒓
FUNDAMENTALS OF MATHEMATICS
IV. PERCENTAGE, RATE, AND BASE
 Examples:
 1.) What is 15% of 120?
 a. 9 b. 20 c. 18 d. 30
 Given: r = 15% or 0.15, B = 120
 Required: Percentage
 Formula: P = r x B (0.15)(120) = 18
FUNDAMENTALS OF MATHEMATICS
IV. PERCENTAGE, RATE, AND BASE
2.) 60 is what percent of 150?
a.20% b. 40% c. 60% d. 75%
Given: P = 60, B = 150
Required: rate
Formula: r = P/B 60 150 = 0.4 or 40%
FUNDAMENTALS OF MATHEMATICS
IV. PERCENTAGE, RATE, AND BASE
3.) 30 is 75% of what number?
a. 20 b. 30 c. 40 d. 50
Given: P = 30, r = 75% or 0.75
Required: Base
Formula: B = P/r 30 75% or 30 0.75
= 40
FUNDAMENTALS OF MATHEMATICS
IV. PERCENTAGE, RATE, AND BASE
B. Percent Increase or Decrease
To increase a number by a certain percent, add
100% to the given percent, (convert the sum to a
decimal), and multiply the number by that decimal.
Example: Increase 80 by 15%
Solution: 15% + 100% = 115% = 1.15
 80 x 1.15 = 92
FUNDAMENTALS OF MATHEMATICS
IV. PERCENTAGE, RATE, AND BASE
To decrease a number by a certain percent,
subtract the given percent from 100%,
(convert to decimal), and multiply the number
by that decimal.
 Example: What results when 80 is decreased by 15%?
 Solution: 100% – 15% = 85% = 0.85
 80 x 0.85 = 68
FUNDAMENTALS OF MATHEMATICS
IV. PERCENTAGE, RATE, AND BASE
C. Applications of Percentage Formulas
1. Discount (Percentage) = Marked Price
(Base) x discount rate (rate)

Net Price = Marked Price – Discount

FUNDAMENTALS OF MATHEMATICS
IV. PERCENTAGE, RATE, AND BASE
Example: 1.) Find the discount and net price
of a product when a marked price of Php 150
is offered at a discount rate of 30%.
Solution: Discount = 150 x 30% = Php 45
 Net Price = 150 – 45 = Php 105
FUNDAMENTALS OF MATHEMATICS
IV. PERCENTAGE, RATE, AND BASE
2.) A pair of shoes is sold at a net prize of Php
840. Find its original price if it is tagged with a
30% discount.
Solution #1: Discount = Marked Price(B) x
discount rate
 = B x 30% = 30%B
FUNDAMENTALS OF MATHEMATICS
IV. PERCENTAGE, RATE, AND BASE
Net Price = Marked Price (B) – Discount
 840 = 100%B – (30%B)
 840 = 70%B
 B = 840 70%
 B = Php 1,200
 Discount = 1200 x 30% = Php 360
 FUNDAMENTALS OF MATHEMATICS
IV. PERCENTAGE, RATE, AND BASE
Solution #2:
Given: Net Prize = Php 840, discount rate = 30%
Required: Marked Price or Original Price
Solution: This problem involves percent
decrease so we can subtract 30% from 100%,
thus we get 70% as the new rate. 840 = B x 70%.
 FUNDAMENTALS OF MATHEMATICS
IV. PERCENTAGE, RATE, AND BASE
Since we are looking for the marked
price which is also the Base, we can use
the formula B = P/r so we will have:
 B = 840 ÷ 70% = 1,200
 FUNDAMENTALS OF MATHEMATICS
IV. PERCENTAGE, RATE, AND BASE
2. Simple Interest
I = Prt where; I = interest charged or paid out
 P = Principal amount that is saved or
borrowed
F = P + I r = rate in percent
F = P(1 + rt) t = time expressed in years
F = final amount resulting from investment or
 FUNDAMENTALS OF MATHEMATICS
IV. PERCENTAGE, RATE, AND BASE
Example: Aira borrows Php 10,000 at an interest of
12% per annum which is payable for 3 years, how
much interest will she be charged and how much will
she pay for her loan?
Solution: P = Php 10,000r = 12% t = 3 years
I = (10,000)(12%)(3) = Php 3,600
 FUNDAMENTALS OF MATHEMATICS
IV. PERCENTAGE, RATE, AND BASE
How much will she pay for her loan?
Solution: Final Amount = Principal +
Interest
 10,000 + 3,600 = Php 13,600
 FUNDAMENTALS OF MATHEMATICS
IV. PERCENTAGE, RATE, AND BASE
3. Compounded Interest
To compute for compounded interest using the
simple interest formula, I = Prt, get first the
interest then add it to the principal to create a
new value for principal. Use it to get the next
interest. Repeat these steps until the entire
period determined by t (time) is covered.
Example: Sheena invests P10,000 at an interest of 5%
compounded annually for 3 years. Find the amount
due at the end of each year.
Solution: After 1 year: P10,000 x 0.05 = P500
 After 2 years: (P10,000 + P500) x 0.05 = P525
 After 3 years: (P10,500 + P525) x 0.05 = P551.25
 P551.25 (interest after 3 years)
 The final amount after 3 years will be:
(P11,025 + P551.25 = P11,576.25)
 FUNDAMENTALS OF MATHEMATICS
IV. PERCENTAGE, RATE, AND BASE
The interest of investment can be reflected every:
3 months if compounded quarterly (n = 4)
2 months if bimonthly (n = 6)
6 months if semiannually (n = 2)
12 months if annually (n = 1)
4 months if compounded in trimesters (n = 3)
FUNDAMENTALS OF MATHEMATICS
IV. PERCENTAGE, RATE, AND BASE
C = the resulting or final amount
P = Principal amount
invested/borrowed C = P(1 + ) nt
r = rate
n = reflection of compounded
interest or the conversion period
t = time in years
FUNDAMENTALS OF MATHEMATICS
IV. PERCENTAGE, RATE, AND BASE
Using the same problem, we have:
P = P10,000 C = P(1 + ) nt

r = 5% or 0.05 = 10,000(1 + ) 1(3)

t = 3 years = 10,000(1.05)3
n = 1 = 10,000(1.157625)
C = P11,576.25
Analyzing Test Items in MATH

Percent, Ratio
and Proportion
(20 items)
FUNDAMENTALS OF MATHEMATICS
V. MEASUREMENT AND UNIT OF MEASURE
A. Metric System & Customary Units System
FUNDAMENTALS OF MATHEMATICS
V. MEASUREMENT AND UNIT OF MEASURE

Example: To convert 25 km to m, move the

decimal point 3 places to the right (i.e. moving
from kilo to base unit). 25km = 25,000m
 FUNDAMENTALS OF MATHEMATICS
V. MEASUREMENT AND UNIT OF MEASURE
Customary Units and Conversions
Length: Mass:
1 foot (ft) = 12 inches (in) 1 pound (lb) = 16 ounces
 1 yard (yd) = 3 feet 1 ton = 2000 pounds
 1mile (mi) = 5280 feet 1 kilogram = 2.2
pounds
 = 1760 yards
 FUNDAMENTALS OF MATHEMATICS
V. MEASUREMENT AND UNIT OF MEASURE
Area:
 1 acre = 43,560 sq. ft.
 1 sq. mi. = 640 acres
 1 hectare = 10,000 m2
 FUNDAMENTALS OF MATHEMATICS
V. MEASUREMENT AND UNIT OF MEASURE
Volume:
 1 gallon (gal) = 4 quarts
 1 quart (qt) = 2 pints
 1 cup = 16 tablespoons
 1 liter = 1.06 quarts
 FUNDAMENTALS OF MATHEMATICS
V. MEASUREMENT AND UNIT OF MEASURE
Time:
1 minute (min) = 60 seconds 1 century = 100 years
1 hour (hr) = 60 mins 1 millennium = 1000 years
1 day (d) = 24 hrs
1 year (yr) = 365 days
1 decade = 10 years
 FUNDAMENTALS OF MATHEMATICS
V. MEASUREMENT AND UNIT OF MEASURE
Converting Metric to Customary and Vice Verza
 Conversion of units of different systems is made easy
using your scientific calculator. Just press SHIFT,
then 8 to use CONV. There are 40 options to choose
from.
 FUNDAMENTALS OF MATHEMATICS
V. MEASUREMENT AND UNIT OF MEASURE
B. Perimeter, Area, and Volume
PLANE GEOMETRY
I. IMPORTANT TERMS AND DEFINITIONS
PLANE GEOMETRY
I. IMPORTANT TERMS AND DEFINITIONS
 PLANE GEOMETRY
ANGLES
An angle is formed by two distinct rays sharing the same endpoint.
Important Concepts About Angles
1. Acute angle – its measure is between 0° and 90°Example: 45°, 82°
Right angle – its measure is exactly 90°
Obtuse angle – its measure is between 90° and 180°Example: 135°, 164°
Straight angle – its measure is exactly 180°
 PLANE GEOMETRY
ANGLES
2. Complementary Angles – any two angles
whose combined measures is equal to 90°
Examples: 60° and 30°, 75° and 15°
3. Supplementary Angles – any two angles whose
combined measures is equal to 180°
Examples: 105° and 75°, 150° and 30°
 PLANE GEOMETRY
II. POLYGONS
Polygon – a simple and closed geometric figure
with sides that are line segments.

Vertex – the point where two sides of a polygon

meet
PLANE GEOMETRY
II. POLYGONS
PLANE GEOMETRY
TRIANGLES
 PLANE GEOMETRY
TRIANGLES

Pythagorean Theorem – states that “In a right triangle, the

sum of the squares of the two legs is equal to the square
of the hypotenuse.”
c
a

a +b =c
2 2 2 b
 PLANE GEOMETRY
TRIANGLES
Pythagorean Triples:
3, 4, 5 8, 15, 17
5, 12, 13 9, 40, 41
7, 24, 25 12, 35, 37

Legs - sides that form the right angle

Hypotenuse – side opposite the right angle
PLANE GEOMETRY
B. Quadrilaterals
PLANE GEOMETRY
B. Quadrilaterals
PLANE GEOMETRY
B. Quadrilaterals
Analyzing Test Items in MATH

Geometry and
Measurement
(10 items)
ELEMENTARY ALGEBRA
I. Algebraic Expressions
A. Important Definitions
1. Algebraic Expression is a constant, a variable, or a
combination of constants and variables and arithmetic
operations.
2. Term is any constant, variable or product, quotient or
roots of constants and variables. They are separated by plus
or minus signs.
3. Coefficient is a factor of the term.
 ELEMENTARY ALGEBRA
I. Algebraic Expressions
A. Important Definitions
4. Polynomial is an algebraic expression consisting one
or more terms that have real number coefficients, all
variables are raised to natural number exponent and has
no variable in the denominator and under the radical
sign.
a. monomial – has only one term ex. 5mn
b. binomial – has two terms ex. 6mn + 3
c. trinomial - has three terms ex. 5x3 + 3x2 – x
 ELEMENTARY ALGEBRA
I. Algebraic Expressions
A. Important Definitions
5. Like terms or similar terms – terms having the same
variables raised to the same power or exponent
Examples:
2x2y and 5x2y are like terms
5abc and 3a2bc are unlike terms
ELEMENTARY ALGEBRA
B. Translating Verbal Expressions to
Algebraic Expressions
ELEMENTARY ALGEBRA
B. Translating Verbal Expressions to
Algebraic Expressions
ELEMENTARY ALGEBRA
C. Operations on Algebraic Expressions
1. Addition: Combine similar terms (i.e. terms with same literal parts are
added). Add the numerical coefficients and copy the variables.
2. Subtraction: Change the sign of the subtrahend and proceed as in
addition.
3. Multiplication: Multiply numerical coefficients and numerical
coefficients separately and write the two products as one term. (Apply
exponents rule: xm • xn = xm+n)
To multiply two polynomials, multiply each term of one polynomial to each
term of the other.
ELEMENTARY ALGEBRA
C. Operations on Algebraic Expressions
4. Division: To divide monomial by another monomial, divide the
numerical coefficients and literal coefficients separately then write
the quotients as one term.
(Apply exponents rule: xm ÷ xn = xm-n)
To divide a polynomial by a monomial, divide each term of the
polynomial by the monomial.

5. Factoring Polynomials and Special Products

a. Using Greatest Common Factor or Common Monomial Factor
ax + ay = a(x+ y)
ELEMENTARY ALGEBRA
C. Operations on Algebraic Expressions
b. Difference between two perfect squares
x2 – y2 = (x + y)(x – y)
c. Sum of two cubes
x3 + y3 = (x + y)(x2 – xy + y2)
d. Difference of two cubes
x3 – y3 = (x – y)(x2 + xy + y2)
ELEMENTARY ALGEBRA
II. LINEAR EQUATIONS
Linear or first degree equations are equations which can be
written in the form ax + b = 0 where a and b are real
numbers and a ≠ 0.
Steps in solving linear equations
1. Simplify both sides of the equations separately:
a. apply distributive property when needed
b. combine like terms when needed
2. Move the terms with variables to one side of the
equation.
ELEMENTARY ALGEBRA
II. LINEAR EQUATIONS
3. Perform the inverse operations of either
addition or subtraction.
4. Perform the inverse operations of either
multiplication or division.
5. Check by substituting the result in the
original equation.
 ELEMENTARY ALGEBRA
II. LINEAR EQUATIONS
Example:
25 – x = 2(x + 5) Distribute 2 to x and 5
25 – x = 2x + 10 Transpose or perform the inverse i.e. subtracting 2x and 25
-x – 2x = 10 – 25 to both sides of the equation
-3x = -15 Combine like terms
= Perform the inverse operation by dividing both sides by -3
x=5
To check: Substitute 5 to x
25 – x = 2(x + 5)
25 – 5 = 2(5 + 5)
20 = 2(10)
20 = 20
 ELEMENTARY ALGEBRA
III. APPLICATIONS (WORK, TIME, DISTANCE)
A. Work Problems

Rate =
 
Work done = Rate x time
 ELEMENTARY ALGEBRA
A. Work Problems
Example:
If A can do a job in 4 hours and B can do the
same job in 8 hours, working together from start,
a.) what part of the job have they done in 2
hours, and
b.) in how many hours can they finish the job?
 ELEMENTARY ALGEBRA
A. Work Problems
Solution:
Rate of A = ¼
Rate of B = 1/8
a.) Work done in 2 hours: (¼)(2) + (1/8)(2) = ¾ , this means ¾
or 75% of the work was done in 2 hours.
b.) Time to finish the job: ¼t + (1/8)t = 1 (one complete job)
t = 2.667 hours
 ELEMENTARY ALGEBRA
A. Work Problems
Work problem with n persons with the same rate doing
the job

Principle: If 10 persons can do a job in 4 days, the

number of man-days to finish the job is (10)(4) = 40 man-
days. Thus, if 8 persons will do the job, it will take them
40/8 = 5 days to finish the job. (application of inverse
proportion)
 ELEMENTARY ALGEBRA
A. Work Problems
Sample problem:

A job could be done by eleven workers in 15 days.

Five workers started the job. They were reinforced
with four more workers at the beginning of the
sixth day. Find the total number of days it will take
them to finish the job.
 ELEMENTARY ALGEBRA
A. Work Problems
Solution: Let t = number of days the four workers has to work
with the five workers to finish the job
*Number of man-days to finish the job = 11(15) = 165 man-days
*Five workers started the job for 5 days and (5 + 4) workers
continued the job on the 6th day for t days until completion.

(5)5 + (5 + 4)t = 165; t = 15.56

Total number of days = 15.56 + 5 = 20.56 days

 ELEMENTARY ALGEBRA
B. Age Problems
Principle: The difference of the ages of two persons is
constant.

If x is the age of Joey now:

His age 6 years ago is (x – 6)

His age 4 years from now is (x + 4)

 ELEMENTARY ALGEBRA
B. Age Problems
Sample problem:
Efren is now 25 years older than his son. In 7 years, he
will be 3 years more than thrice as his son’s age. What
are their present ages?

a. 3 and 28 b. 2 and 27
c. 5 and 30d. 4 and 29
 ELEMENTARY ALGEBRA
B. Age Problems
Solution: Let x = the son’s present age, then Efren’s
present age = x + 25
  Age Now Future Age (7 years from
now)
Son x x+7
Efren x + 25 (x + 25) + 7 = x + 32
 ELEMENTARY ALGEBRA
B. Age Problems
In 7 years, Efren’s age will be 3 years more than thrice
as his son’s age, we have:
x + 32 = 3(x + 7) + 3
x + 32 = 3x + 21 + 3
x + 32 = 3x + 24
2x = 8
x=4 son’s present age
x + 25 = 4 + 25 = 29 Efren’s present age
 ELEMENTARY ALGEBRA
C. Digit Problems
Principle: For a three-digit number:
let h = hundred’s digit,
t = ten’s digit, and
u = unit’s digit

The number is: 100h + 10t + u

The reversed number is: 100u + 10t + h
The sum of the digits is: h + t + u
 ELEMENTARY ALGEBRA
D. Uniform Motion (Constant Speed)
Problems
Principle:
distance = rate x time
rate = distance/time
time =distance/rate
d
r t
 ELEMENTARY ALGEBRA
D. Uniform Motion (Constant Speed)
Problems
Sample Problem: Bob travels 60 miles in 1 ½ hours. If he
travels at the same rate for another 2 hours, how many more
miles will he travel?
Given: r = 60 miles in 1 ½ hours or
60 ÷ 1 ½ = 40 miles per hour
t = 2 hours
Required: distance, use the formula rate x time
d = (40mph)(2hrs) = 80 miles
Analyzing Test Items in MATH

Algebra
(10 items)
STATISTICS AND PROBABILITY
I. SIMPLE PROBABILITY

Probability – likelihood that an event will occur expressed

as the ratio of the number of favorable outcomes in the
set of outcomes divided by the total number of possible
outcomes.

Probability =
STATISTICS AND PROBABILITY
I. SIMPLE PROBABILITY

Principle: If an event can happen in h ways and can fail in

f ways, then the probability that the event will happen is:
p=
and the probability that the event will fail is:
q=

and p + q = 1
STATISTICS AND PROBABILITY
I. SIMPLE PROBABILITY

Sample Problem:
For a single question in the board exams,
there are four choices and only one of which is
correct. By guessing, what is the probability
that you will get the correct answer?
STATISTICS AND PROBABILITY
I. SIMPLE PROBABILITY
Solution: The event here is to get the correct answer and
there are four trials. Out of the four trials, the event
(correct answer) can happen only once, and can fail three
times. Thus, the probability that the event can happen is:
p= =
*the event that it will fail is q = =
and = 1
 STATISTICS AND PROBABILITY
II. COUNTING TECHNIQUES
A. Fundamental Counting Principle
Factorial – the product of that whole number and the
counting numbers less than the number.
n!(read as n factorial) is n! = (n – 1) x (n – 2) x (n – 3) x ….
Example:
5! = 5 x 4 x 3 x 2 x 1 = 120

3! = 3 x 2 x 1 = 6
 STATISTICS AND PROBABILITY
II. COUNTING TECHNIQUES
B. Permutation – number of possible arrangements for a
given set of objects, the sequence or order of the objects is
important.

1. Permutation of n different things taken r at a time is:

nPr and nPn = n!

*note that 0! = 1
 STATISTICS AND PROBABILITY
II. COUNTING TECHNIQUES
Sample problem:
How many permutations can be made out of the letters in
the word ALVIN taken 3 at a time?
Solution:
n = 5; r = 3
5P 3 = 60 ways
*Using your calculator, just key in 5 or the value of n, the
nPr function key, and 3 for r, then press = sign to get the
answer.
 STATISTICS AND PROBABILITY
II. COUNTING TECHNIQUES
2. Permutation of n things with some objects
identical
Permutation of n things of which q are alike, r
are alike, and so on is:
 STATISTICS AND PROBABILITY
II. COUNTING TECHNIQUES
Sample problem: How many arrangements can
be made out of the letters in the word
MISSISSIPPI?
Solution:
n = 11
I=4 = 34,650 ways
S=4
P=2
 STATISTICS AND PROBABILITY
II. COUNTING TECHNIQUES
3. Circular (Cyclical) Permutation
The permutation of n different things in a circle is:
P = (n – 1)!
Sample problem:
How many different unique designs of bracelets can
be made out of 7 different beads?
Solution: n = 7 P = (7 – 1)! = 6! = 720 designs
 STATISTICS AND PROBABILITY
II. COUNTING TECHNIQUES
C. Combination – number of groupings of a set of
objects, regardless of the order or sequence of the
objects.
Combination of n things taken r at a time is:
nCr = and nCn = 1
 STATISTICS AND PROBABILITY
II. COUNTING TECHNIQUES
Sample Problem: How many ways can you draw 2 queens
from a deck of cards?
Solution: n = 4, since there are 4 queens in a deck of cards
r=2
4C2 = = = 6 ways
*Using your calculator, just key in 4 or the value of n, the
nCr function key, and 2 for r, then press = sign to get the
answer.
Analyzing Test Items in MATH

Probability and
Counting Techniques
(10 items)
 STATISTICS AND PROBABILITY
III. BASIC STATISTICS
A. Measures of Central Tendency (Mean, Median, Mode)
1. Mean (also known as the arithmetic average) is the sum
of the item values divided by the number of items.
2. Median is the value of the middle term when the data
are arranged in either ascending or descending order. With
odd number of items, the middle most term is the median;
while if there is an even number of items, the median is
computed as the arithmetic mean of the values found in
the middle.
 STATISTICS AND PROBABILITY
III. BASIC STATISTICS
3. Mode - the most frequently occurring value in a given
set of data
B. Range – difference between the highest and the
lowest values in the list of data
C. Standard Deviation (σ, sigma) – measure of how
spread out numbers are. It is the square root of the
variance.
D. Variance (σ2) – average of the squared differences
from the mean
 STATISTICS AND PROBABILITY
III. BASIC STATISTICS
Sample Problem: Find the mean, median, mode and
range of the following set of data: (85, 83, 84, 85, 87,
82, 79, 78, 88)
Solution: Mean = = = 83.44
 STATISTICS AND PROBABILITY
III. BASIC STATISTICS
Arrange in ascending order:

= {78, 79, 82, 83, 84, 85, 85, 87, 88}

Median = 84

Mode = 85
 STATISTICS AND PROBABILITY
*SEQUENCE and SERIES
Sequence – an ordered list of numbers
Series – the sum of the terms of a sequence

Arithmetic Sequence or Arithmetic Progression – a

sequence of numbers in which the difference between
any two successive terms is constant; the constant
difference is called common difference (d).
Example: (1, 4, 7, 10, 13,…) common difference is 3
 STATISTICS AND PROBABILITY
Elements of Arithmetic Sequence
a1 = first term, an = nth term
am = any term before an
d = common difference = a2 – a1 = a4 – a3, and so on
S = sum of all the terms
Finding the nth term of AP
an = a1 + (n – 1)d or am + (n – m)d
Sum of n terms of AP
S = (a1 + an) orS = [2a1 + (n – 1)d]
 STATISTICS AND PROBABILITY
Sample Problem: Find the seventh term and the sum of
the first seven terms of the arithmetic progression 2,
5, 8, 11 . . . ?
Solution:
a1 = 2 a7 = 2 + (7 – 1)3 S = (2 + 20)
n =7 = 2 + 18 = 7(11)
d =5–2=3 = 20 = 77
 STATISTICS AND PROBABILITY
Sample Problem: Find the seventh term and the sum of
the first seven terms of the arithmetic progression 2,
5, 8, 11 . . . ?
Solution:
a1 = 2 a7 = 2 + (7 – 1)3 S = (2 + 20)
n =7 = 2 + 18 = 7(11)
d =5–2=3 = 20 = 77
Analyzing Test Items in MATH

Statistics
(10 items)