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 Digital Notes
20CB603 ARTIFICAL INTELLIGENCE
Department: CSBS
Batch/Year: 2020-24/III
Created by: Mr.B.Jayaram / AP
Date: 08.02.2023
 Table of Contents

S NO CONTENTS PAGE NO

1 Contents 5

2 Course Objectives 6

3 Pre Requisites (Course Names with Code) 6

4 Syllabus (With Subject Code, Name, LTPC details) 7

5 Course Outcomes 9

6 CO- PO/PSO Mapping 10

7 Lecture Plan 11

8 Activity Based Learning 12

9 Lecture Notes 13

10 Assignments 39

11 Part A (Q & A) 40

12 Part B Qs 46

13 Supportive Online Certification Courses 47

Real time Applications in day to day life and to 48

14
Industry

15 Contents Beyond the Syllabus 49

16 Assessment Schedule 50

17 Prescribed Text Books & Reference Books 51

18 Mini Project Suggestions 52

COURSE OBJECTIVES

• Understand the main approaches to artificial intelligence.

• Explore areas of application such as knowledge representation, natural
language processing and expert systems.
• Develop abilities to apply, build and modify decision models to solve real
problems.
• Design good evaluation functions and strategies for game playing
• Discuss the core concepts and algorithms of searching

PREREQUISITE

• 20 MA103 - Introduction to Probability, Statistics and Calculus

• 20MA203 – Statistical Methods
• 20MA303 Computational Statistics
• 20CB903 Machine Learning
 SYLLABUS
LT P C
20CB603 Artificial Intelligence + Lab 30 2 4

 
UNIT I INTRODUCTION 9

Problems of AI, AI technique, Tic - Tac - Toe problem. Intelligent Agents, Agents &
environment, nature of environment, structure of agents, goal based agents, utility
based agents, learning agents. Problem Solving, Problems, Problem Space & search:
Defining the problem as state space search, production system, problem
characteristics, issues in the design of search programs.

UNIT II SEARCH TECHNIQUES 9

Problem solving agents, searching for solutions; uniform search strategies: breadth
first search, depth first search, depth limited search, bidirectional search, comparing
uniform search strategies. Heuristic search strategies Greedy best-first search, A*
search, AO* search, memory bounded heuristic search: local search algorithms &
optimization problems: Hill climbing search, simulated annealing search, local beam
search

UNIT III CONSTRAINT SATISFACTION PROBLEMS 9

Local search for constraint satisfaction problems. Adversarial search, Games, optimal
decisions & strategies in games, the minimax search procedure, alpha-beta pruning,
additional refinements, iterative deepening.

UNIT IV KNOWLEDGE & REASONING 9

Knowledge representation issues, representation & mapping, approaches to

knowledge representation. Using predicate logic, representing simple fact in logic,
representing instant & ISA relationship, computable functions & predicates,
resolution, natural deduction. Representing knowledge using rules, Procedural verses
declarative knowledge, logic programming, forward verses backward reasoning,
matching, control Knowledge.
 SYLLABUS
LT P C
20CB603 Artificial Intelligence + Lab
30 2 4

UNIT V PROBABILISTIC REASONING 9

Representing knowledge in an uncertain domain, the semantics of Bayesian

networks, Dempster-Shafer theory, Planning Overview, components of a planning
system, Goal stack planning, Hierarchical planning, other planning techniques.
Expert Systems: Representing and using domain knowledge, expert system shells,
and knowledge acquisition.

TOTAL: 45 PERIODS
 Course Outcomes
Cognitive/
Affective
Expected
Course Level of
Course Outcome Statement Level of
Code the
Attainment
Course
Outcome
Course Outcome Statements in Cognitive Domain

Demonstrate fundamental understanding of artificial

intelligence (AI) and its problem solving techniques Understand
CO1 K2 70%
Explain how Artificial Intelligence enables capabilities
that are beyond conventional technology Analyse
CO2 K4 70%
Implement and execute searching in AI
Understand
CO3 K2 70%

Understand how to represent the knowledge and its

approaches Analyse
CO4 K4 70%

Acquaint the Artificial Intelligence techniques for

building well-engineered and efficient intelligent Analyse
CO5 systems. K4 70%
 CO-PO/PSO Mapping

Correlation Matrix of the Course Outcomes to Programme Outcomes and

Programme Specific Outcomes Including Course Enrichment Activities

(CO 3Programme Outcomes (POs), Programme Specific Outcomes (PSOs)

s)

PO PO PO PO PO PO PO PO PO PO PO PO PS PS PS
1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9
10 11 12 O1 O2 O3

CO1 3 3 2 1 2 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 2 2 1

CO2 3 3 2 1 2 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 2 2 1

CO3 3 3 2 1 2 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 2 2 1

CO4 3 3 2 1 2 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 2 2 1

CO5 3 3 2 1 2 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 2 2 1

9
 Lecture Plan
UNIT – I

of delivery
Actual lecture Date
S No Topics

of

Proposed date

pertaining CO

Taxonomy
Periods

Mode
level
No
1 CO1 K2 PPT
1 Problems of AI, AI technique,

1
CO1 K2 PPT
Tic - Tac - Toe problem. Intelligent
2 Agents,

Agents & environment, nature of 1

CO1 K2 PPT
environment,
3
1
structure of agents, goal based
CO1 K2 PPT
agents, utility based agents,
4
1
learning agents. CO1 K2 PPT
5
1
Problem Solving, Problems, CO1 K2 PPT
6

1
Problem Space & search: CO1 K2 PPT

1
CO1 K2 PPT
Defining the problem as state space
8 search,

production system, problem 1

characteristics, issues in the design CO1 K2 PPT
of search programs.
9
 Activity based learning
(Model building/Prototype)

S NO TOPICS

1 Problem analysis in various types of applications – Cross word

Puzzle.
1.1 INTRODUCTION

How to make computers do things which people do better.

What are the problems that can be solved using AI

Underlying Assumption
The research in AI produces a physical symbol system hypothesis for underlying
assumption.  A physical symbol system consists of a set of entities called symbol.
Which are physical patterns that can occur as components of other type of entity
called an expression or symbol structure?

A symbol structure composed of a number of instances of symbol related in some

physical way.    

At any instant of time the system will contain a collection of these symbol
structures. Besides the structure the system also contains a collection of processes
of that operate on expression to produce expression: processes of creation,
modification, reproduction and destruction.  

Computer provides the perfect medium for this experiment since they can be
programmed to simulate any physical symbol system.  

The importance of the physical symbol system hypothesis is twofold. It is a

significant theory of the nature of human intelligence and so is of great interest to
psychologists.
AI Techniques
Search: This technique provides a way of solving problems for no more direct
approach is available as well as a framework into which any direct techniques that
are can be embedded.  

Use of Knowledge: This technique provides a way of solving complex problem

by exploiting the structures of the object that are involved. The knowledge
captures generalizations.

Abstraction: This technique provides a way of separating important features and

variations from the many unimportant ones that would otherwise overwhelm any
process.

That is it is not necessary to represent separately each individual situation.

Instead situation that share important role or properties are grouped together. If
knowledge does not have this property, inordinate amount of memory and
updating will be required.  

It can be understood by people who must provide it.

 It can easily be modified to correct errors and to reflect changes in the world and
our world view.

It can be used in a great many situations even if it is not totally accurate.  

TIC – TAC – TOE Problem

Tic-Tac-Toe is a simple game for two players that we enjoyed playing as kids
(especially in boring classrooms). The game involves 2 players placing their
respective symbols in a 3x3 grid. The player who manages to place three of their
symbols in horizontal/vertical/diagonal row wins the game.

Fig 1.1 Tic – Tac – Toe Problem

Tic-tac-toe, noughts and crosses, or Xs and Os is a paper-and-pencil game for two

players who take turns marking the spaces in a three-by-three grid with X or O. The
player who succeeds in placing three of their marks in a horizontal, vertical, or
diagonal row is the winner.
Advantage:

It has move table.

Very efficient in terms of time.
Advantages

Efficient in terms of time.

Analyze all possible moves at each step.
Programmers knowledge is tested.

Disadvantages

Cannot be extended for 3 dimensions

1.2 Intelligent Agents

An agent is anything that can be viewed as perceiving its environment

through sensors and acting upon that environment through actuators.
We use the term percept to refer to the agent’s perceptual inputs at
any given instant. An agent’s percept sequence is the complete history
of everything the agent has ever perceived.

Agent’s behavior is described by the agent function that maps any

given percept sequence to an action.

We can imagine tabulating the agent function that describes any given
agent; The table is, of course, an external characterization of the agent.
Internally, the agent function for an artificial agent will be implemented
by an agent program.

Rational Agent

A rational agent is one that does the right thing—conceptually

speaking, every entry in the table for the agent function is filled out
correctly.
The Nature of Environments

Specifying the task environment

In contrast, some software agents (or software robots or softbots) exist in
rich, unlimited domains. Imagine a softbot Web site operator designed to
scan Internet news sources and show the interesting items to its users,
while selling advertising space to generate revenue.

Properties of Task Environment

The Below table explains the properties of task environment based on

type of agent. Which indicates performance can be measured according to
application.

Fully Observable Vs Partially Observable Environment:

When an agent sensor is capable to sense or access the complete state of

an agent at each point in time, it is said to be a fully observable
environment else it is partially observable.

Unobservable

An environment is called unobservable when the agent has no sensors in

all environments. Examples: Chess – the board is fully observable, and so
are the opponent's moves. Driving – the environment is partially
observable because what's around the corner is not known.
Single agent vs. multiagent: The distinction between single-agent
and multiagent environments may seem simple enough.

For example, an agent solving a crossword puzzle by itself is clearly in

a single-agent environment, whereas an agent playing chess is in a
two agent environment.

Competitive multi agent and cooperative multi agent

Chess is a competitive multi agent environment.

In the taxi-driving environment, on the other hand, avoiding collisions

maximizes the performance measure of all agents, so it is a partially
cooperative multiagent environment. It is also partially competitive
because, for example, only one car can occupy a parking space.

Deterministic vs. stochastic

Deterministic vs. stochastic. If the next state of the environment is

completely deter-mined by the current state and the action executed
by the agent, then we say the environment is deterministic; otherwise,
it is stochastic.

Taxi driving is clearly stochastic in this sense, because one can never
predict the behavior of traffic exactly; moreover, one’s tires blow out
and one’s engine seizes up without warning. The vacuum world as we
described it is deterministic

Uncertain

Environment is uncertain if it is not fully observable or not

deterministic. word “stochastic” generally implies that uncertainty
about outcomes is quantified in terms of probabilities;

Non Deterministic

nondeterministic environment is one in which actions are characterized

by their possible outcomes, but no probabilities are attached to them.
Nondeterministic environment descriptions are usually associated with
performance measures that require the agent to succeed for all
possible outcomes of its actions.
Episodic vs. sequential:

Episodic vs. sequential: In an episodic task environment, the agent’s

experience is divided into atomic episodes. In each episode the agent
receives a percept and then performs a single action.

An agent that has to spot defective parts on an assembly line bases

each decision on the current part, regardless of previous decisions;
moreover, the current decision doesn’t affect whether the next part is
defective. In sequential environments, on the other hand, the current
decision could affect all future decisions.

Static vs. dynamic:

Static vs. dynamic: If the environment can change while an agent is

deliberating, then we say the environment is dynamic for that agent;
otherwise, it is static.

If the environment itself does not change with the passage of time but
the agent’s performance score does, then we say the environment is
semidynamic.

Discrete vs. continuous:

The discrete/continuous distinction applies to the state of the

environment, to the way time is handled, and to the percepts and
actions of the agent.

Known and Unknown

It is quite possible for a known environment to be partially observable
—for example, in solitaire card games, I know the rules but am still
unable to see the cards that have not yet been turned over.

Conversely, an unknown environment can be fully observable—in a new

video game, the screen may show the entire game state but I still don’t
know what the buttons do until I try them.

Examples of Task Environment for various scenario is given below

Structure of Agent

The job of AI is to design an agent program that implements the

agent function— the mapping from percepts to actions. We assume
this program will run on some sort of computing device with physical
sensors and actuators—we call this the architecture:

agent = architecture + program .

Example for Agent Program is given below

Types of Agent

Simplex Reflex Agent.

Model –Based Reflex Agents.
Goal Based Agents.
Utility Based Agents.

Simplex Reflex Agent.

The simplest kind of agent is the simple reflex agent. These agents
select actions on the basis of the current percept, ignoring the rest of
the percept history.

An Agent Program for Vacuum cleaner is shown below

Simplex Reflex Agent in Complex Environment

Simple reflex behaviors occur even in more complex environments.

Imagine yourself as the driver of the automated taxi. If the car in front
brakes and its brake lights come on, then you should notice this and
initiate braking. In other words, some processing is done on the visual
input to establish the condition we call “The car in front is braking.”
Then, this triggers some established connection in the agent program
to the action “initiate braking.”. This is called as Condition – Action
rule.
Simple reflex agents have the admirable property of being simple, but they turn
out to be of limited intelligence. The agent in Figure 2.10 will work only if the
correct decision can be made on the basis of only the current percept—that is,
only if the environment is fully observable.

RANDOMIZATION

Escape from infinite loops is possible if the agent can randomize its actions. For
example, if the vacuum agent perceives [Clean], it might flip a coin to choose
between Left and Right .
Model Based Reflex Agent

The most effective way to handle partial observability is for the agent to keep track
of the part of the world it can’t see now. That is, the agent should maintain some
sort of internal state that depends on the percept history and thereby reflects at least
some of the unobserved aspects of the current state.

This knowledge about “how the world works”—whether implemented in

simple Boolean circuits or in complete scientific theories—is called a
model of the world. An agent that uses such a model is called a model-
based agent.
Goal Based Agent

In other words, as well as a current state description, the agent needs some sort
of goal information that describes situations that are desirable—for example,
being at the passenger’s destination. The agent program can combine this with
the model (the same information as was used in the model based reflex agent)
to choose actions that achieve the goal. Figure 2.13 shows the goal-based
agent’s structure.

Although the goal-based agent appears less efficient, it is more flexible because
the knowledge that supports its decisions is represented explicitly and can be
modified

In order to find a solution we use

Searching
Planning

The goal-based agent’s behavior can easily be changed to go to a different

destination, simply by specifying that destination as the goal.
Utility Based Agents

A more general performance measure should allow a comparison of different world

states according to exactly how happy they would make the agent. Because “happy”
does not sound very scientific, economists and computer scientists use the term
utility instead

An agent’s utility function is essentially an internalization of the performance

measure. If the internal utility function and the external performance measure are
in agreement, then an agent that chooses actions to maximize its utility will be
rational according to the external performance measure.

Partial observability and stochasticity are ubiquitous in the real world, and so,
therefore, is decision making under uncertainty. Technically speaking, a rational
utility-based agent EXPECTED UTILITY chooses the action that maximizes the
expected utility of the action outcomes—that is, the utility the agent expects to
derive, on average, given the probabilities and utilities of each outcome
1.3 Problems, Problem Spaces and Search

Problem solving is a process of generating solutions from observed data.

•A Problem is characterized by a set of goals,

•A set of objects, and
•A set of operations.

problem space is an abstract space.

•A problem space encompasses all valid states that can be generated by the
application of any combination of operators on any combination of objects.
•The problem space may contain one or more solutions. A solution is a combination
of operations and objects that achieve the goals.

search refers to the search for a solution in a problem space.

• Search proceeds with different types of search control strategies

•The depth-first search and breadth-first search are the two common search
strategies.

To solve the problem of building a system you should take the following steps:

•1. Define the problem accurately including detailed specifications and what
constitutes a suitable solution.
•2. Scrutinize the problem carefully, for some features may have a central affect on
the chosen method of solution.
•3. Segregate and represent the background knowledge needed in the solution of the
problem.
•4. Choose the best solving techniques for the problem to solve a solution.

Water Jug Problem

In this problem, we use two jugs called four and three; four holds a maximum of four
gallons of water and three a maximum of three gallons of water. How can we get
two gallons of water in the four jug?

The state space is a set of prearranged pairs giving the number of gallons of water in
the pair of jugs at any time, i.e., (four, three) where four = 0, 1, 2, 3 or 4 and three
= 0, 1, 2 or 3.

The start state is (0, 0) and the goal state is (2, n) where n may be any but it is
limited to three holding from 0 to 3 gallons of water or empty. Three and four shows
the name and numerical number shows the amount of water in jugs for solving the
water jug problem. The major production rules for solving this problem are shown
below:

Assume x, y as 4 gallon jug and 3 gallon jug respectively.

One of the solution for water jug problem is given below:

Search tree for water jug problem

Search graph for water jug problem

Production Systems

Production systems provide appropriate structures for performing and describing

search processes. A production system has four basic components as enumerated
below.

•A set of rules each consisting of a left side that determines the applicability of the
rule and a right side that describes the operation to be performed if the rule is
applied.
•A database of current facts established during the process of inference.
•A control strategy that specifies the order in which the rules will be compared with
facts in the database and also specifies how to resolve conflicts in selection of
several rules or selection of more facts.
•A rule firing module.

Example: Eight puzzle (8-Puzzle)

The 8-puzzle is a 3 × 3 array containing eight square pieces, numbered 1 through

8, and one empty space. A piece can be moved horizontally or vertically into the
empty space, in effect exchanging the positions of the piece and the empty space.
There are four possible moves, UP (move the blank space up), DOWN, LEFT and
RIGHT. The aim of the game is to make a sequence of moves that will convert the
board from the start state into the goal state:

Control Strategies

1) The first requirement of a control strategy is that it causes motion.

2) The good control strategy should be systematic.
 Advantages of BFS

1) It will not be trapped in a blind alley.

2) If there is a solution DFS is guaranteed to find it.
3) If there are multiple solutions, minimum solution is found.

Depth First Search

Algorithm DFS

1. If the initial state is a goal state, quit and return success.

2. Otherwise, do the following until success or failure is signaled:
∙ Generate a successor, E, of the initial state. If there are no more successors,
signal failure.
∙ Call Depth-First Search with E as the initial state.
∙ If success is returned, signal success. Otherwise continue in this

Advantages of DFS

1. Requires very less memory.

2. May find a solution with examining much of the search space.

Heuristic Search

Heuristic is a technique that improves the efficiency of the search process.

• - It is often useful to introduce heuristics based • on relatively unstructured

knowledge.
• - can not use Mathematical analysis.
• Heuristic function : is the function that maps from problem state descriptions
to measures of desirability, usually represent as number.

Steps to solve the problem using Heuristic Search

1. Define the problem precisely. Specify the problem space, and the starting and
goal state (s).
2. Analyze the problem to determine where it falls with respect to seven important
issues.
3. Identify and represent the knowledge required by the task.
4. Choose one or more techniques for problem solving , and apply those
techniques to the problem.
Problem Characteristics

Problem has to be analyzed in various dimensions to be solved by using a single

technique or combination of techniques. For this we analyze the following points.

•Is the problem decomposable into a set of smaller or easier sub problems?
•Can solution steps be ignored or at least undone if proved unwise.
•Is the problems universe predictable.
•Is a good solution to the problem obvious without comparison to all other possible
solutions.
•Is the desired solution a state of world or path of state?
•Is the large amount of knowledge absolutely required to solve the problem, or
knowledge is important only to constrain the search?
•Can the computer that is simply given the problem return the solution, or will the
solution of the problem require interaction between the computer and a person?

Is the problem decomposable into a set of smaller or easier sub

problems?

Eg: Blocks Problem

2. Can solution steps be ignored or undone?

∙ Ignorable : theorem proving

∙ solution steps can be ignored
∙ Recoverable : 8 puzzle
∙ solution steps can be undone (backtracking)
∙ Irrecoverable : chess
∙ solution steps can not be undone

3. Is the universe predictable?

– 8-puzzel (yes)
– bridge (no) 􀀀 but we can use probabilities of each
possible outcomes
• controlling robot arm 􀀀 gear of the arm might stuck
• helping the lawyer to decide how to defend his client
against a murder charge.

3. Is the good solution absolute or relative?

Consider the problem statement below

1. Marcus was a man.

2. Marcus was a Pompeian.
3. Marcus was born in 40 A.D.
4. All men are mortal.
5. All Pompeians died when the volcano
erupted in 79 A.D.
6. No mortal lives longer than 150 years.
7. It is now 1991 A.D.

Is Marcus alive?
5. Is the solution a state or a path ?

- consistent…… interpretation for the sentence

- water jug problem 􀀀 path / plan

6. What is the role of knowledge?

knowledge for perfect program of chess

(need knowledge to constrain the search)
newspaper story understanding
(need knowledge to recognize a solution)

7. Does the task require interaction with a person?

solitary/ conversational

Production System Characteristics

Categories of Production Systems

Issues in design of search Programs

1. The direction to which to conduct search? (forward or Backward)

2. How to select applicable production rules?
3. How to represent each node of the search process.
Assignments
Q. Question CO K Level
No. Level
Explain Tic Tac Toe Problem with example CO1 K2
1

2 CO1 K2
Explain different types of agents and environments

4
Part-A Questions

What is artificial intelligence? CO1 K1 

There are three kinds of intelligence: one kind understands things for itself, the other
appreciates what others can understand, the third understands neither for itself nor
through others. This first kind is excellent, the second good, and the third kind useless.
(by Niccolous Macivelli)
 
How to make computers do things which people do better is also termed as artificial
intelligence.
 
List out some tasks in AI. CO1 K1
 
Mundane tasks
Perception
Natural Language Processing
Formal tasks
Games
Mathematics
Expert tasks
Engineering Analysis.
Financial Analysis.
 
What is underlying assumption? CO1 K1
 
The research in AI produces a physical symbol system hypothesis for underlying
assumption.  A physical symbol system consists of a set of entities called symbol. Which
are physical patterns that can occur as components of other type of entity called an
expression or symbol structure?
 
List out 3 common AI techniques. CO1 K1
 
Search: This technique provides a way of solving problems for no more direct approach
is available as well as a framework into which any direct techniques that are can be
embedded.  
Use of Knowledge: This technique provides a way of solving complex problem by
exploiting the structures of the object that are involved. The knowledge captures
generalizations.
Abstraction: This technique provides a way of separating important features and
variations from the many unimportant ones that would otherwise overwhelm any
process.

Define Intelligent Agent. CO1 K1

 
An agent is anything that can be viewed as perceiving its environment through sensors
and acting upon that environment through actuators.
What is percept? CO1 K1
 
percept to refer to the agent’s perceptual inputs at any given instant. An
agent’s percept sequence is the complete history of everything the agent
has ever perceived.
 
Compare action and action function. CO1 K1
 
Agent’s behavior is described by the agent function that maps any given
percept sequence to an action.
 
Define rational agent. CO1 K1
 
A rational agent is one that does the right thing—conceptually speaking,
every entry in the table for the agent function is filled out correctly.
 
Define Rational Agent CO1 K1
 
A rational agent or rational being is a person or entity that always aims to
perform optimal actions based on given premises and information. A
rational agent can be anything that makes decisions, typically a person,
firm, machine, or software.
 
What is nature of environment? CO1 K1

An environment in artificial intelligence is the surrounding of the agent.

The agent takes input from the environment through sensors and delivers
the output to the environment through actuators
What do you mean by specifying the task environment? CO1 K1

A task environment is a theoretical construct which is supposed to supply the

goal relevant consequences of allowable moves in performing the task. Moves or
actions are considered allowable if they can possibly advance an agent closer to
his or her goal. It is represented as PEAS (Performance, Environment, Actuators
and Sensors).

List out the properties of task environment. CO1 K1

 
Fully Observable Vs Partially Observable Environment
Unobservable
Single agent vs. multiagent:
Competitive multi agent and cooperative multi agent
Deterministic vs. stochastic
Uncertain
Non Deterministic
Episodic vs. sequential:
Episodic vs. sequential:
Static vs. dynamic:
Discrete vs. continuous:
Known and Unknown
 
What is structure of agent? CO1 K1
 
The job of AI is to design an agent program that implements the agent unction—
the mapping from percepts to actions. We assume this program will run on some
sort of computing device with physical sensors and actuators—we call this the
architecture:

Agent = architecture + program .

 
List out the types of agent. CO1 K1
 
Simplex Reflex Agent.
Model –Based Reflex Agents.
Goal Based Agents.
Utility Based Agents.
Define problem, Problem space and search. CO1 K1
 
problem space is an abstract space.
A problem space encompasses all valid states that can be generated by the application
of any combination of operators on any combination of objects.
The problem space may contain one or more solutions. A solution is a combination of
operations and objects that achieve the goals.
search refers to the search for a solution in a problem space.
Search proceeds with different types of search control strategies
The depth-first search and breadth-first search are the two common search strategies.
To solve the problem of building a system you should take the following steps:
1. Define the problem accurately including detailed specifications and what constitutes
a suitable solution.
2. Scrutinize the problem carefully, for some features may have a central affect on the
chosen method of solution.
3. Segregate and represent the background knowledge needed in the solution of the
problem.
4. Choose the best solving techniques for the problem to solve a solution.
 
Define production systems. CO1 K1
 
A production system is a type of cognitive architecture for implementing search
algorithms and simulating human problem-solving abilities. This problem-solving
knowledge is stored in the system in the form of products, which are little quanta
 
List down the advantages of BFS algorithm. CO1 K1
 
It will not be trapped in a blind alley.
If there is a solution DFS is guaranteed to find it.
If there are multiple solutions, minimum solution is found.
 
What are the drawbacks of BFS algorithm? CO1 K1

It can be very memory intensive since it needs to keep track of all the nodes in the
search tree.
It can be slow since it expands all the nodes at each level before moving on to the
next level.
It can sometimes find sub-optimal solutions since it doesn’t explore all possible paths
through the search tree.
Define Heuristic Search. Give Example. CO1 K1
 
Heuristic is a technique that improves the efficiency of the search process.
• - It is often useful to introduce heuristics based • on relatively unstructured
knowledge.
• - can not use Mathematical analysis.
• Heuristic function : is the function that maps from problem state descriptions to
measures of desirability, usually represent as number.
 
List out the steps to solve problem using Heuristic Search. CO1 K1
 
1. Define the problem precisely. Specify the problem space, and the starting and
goal state (s).
2. Analyze the problem to determine where it falls with respect to seven
important issues.
3. Identify and represent the knowledge required by the task.
4. Choose one or more techniques for problem solving , and apply those
techniques to the problem.
 
List down the characteristics of a problem. CO1 K1
 
Is the problem decomposable into a set of smaller or easier sub problems?
Can solution steps be ignored or at least undone if proved unwise.
Is the problems universe predictable?
Is a good solution to the problem obvious without comparison to all other possible
solutions?
Is the desired solution a state of world or path of state?
Is the large amount of knowledge absolutely required to solve the problem, or
knowledge is important only to constrain the search?
Can the computer that is simply given the problem return the solution, or will the
solution of the problem require interaction between the computer and a person?
 
List out the characteristics of production systems. CO1 K1
 
List out the issues in design of search program. CO1 K1
 
The direction to which to conduct search? (forward or Backward)
How to select applicable production rules?
How to represent each node of the search process?
 
Define partially commutative production system. CO1 K1
 
Partially Commutative Production System: In this production system if a set of rules
is used to change state A to state B then any allowable combination of these rules
will also produce the same results.
 
What is monotonic reasoning in AI? CO1 K1
 
In monotonic reasoning, once the conclusion is taken, then it will remain the same
even if we add some other information to existing information in our knowledge
base. In monotonic reasoning, adding knowledge does not decrease the set of
prepositions that can be derived.
 
What is non monotonic reasoning in AI? CO1 K1
 
Non-monotonic Reasoning is the process that changes its direction or values as the
knowledge base increases. It is also known as NMR in Artificial Intelligence. Non-
monotonic Reasoning will increase or decrease based on the condition.
Part-B Questions

Explain underlying assumption with example.

Explain techniques in artificial intelligence with example.
Explain Tic – Tac – Toe with and how to find solution for it.
Explain Intelligent Agents with block diagram and example.
Explain simple agent function for painting a wall with blue colour.
Explain rationality and how it reacts with environment with example.
Explain the properties of task environment in detail with examples.
Explain the structure of the agent with example.
Explain different types of agent with example.
Compare different types of agents and its features.
Explain water jug problem with solution.
Explain production systems with example.
Explain BFS algorithm with advantages, disadvantages and examples.
Explain DFS algorithm with advantages, disadvantages and examples.
Compare BFS and DFS with examples.
Explain Heuristics Search with examples.
Explain the procedure involved in solving problem using heuristic search.
Explain various problem characteristics of problem with example.
Explain production system characteristics of production with examples.
Explain issues in design of search problems with example.
 Supportive Online Courses
Sl. Courses link
No.
Introduction to AI https://onlinecourses.nptel.ac.in/noc23_cs05/
announcements?force=true

1
Real Time Applications in Day
to Day life and to Industry
Sl. No. Real Time Application

Banking
1

2 Hospital

3 Share market

4 Educational Institutions
Content Beyond the Syllabus
Machine Learning Model

Before discussing the machine learning model, we must need to understand the
following formal definition of ML given by professor Mitchell −

“A computer program is said to learn from experience E with respect to some class of
tasks T and performance measure P, if its performance at tasks in T, as measured by
P, improves with experience E.”

The above definition is basically focusing on three parameters, also the main
components of any learning algorithm, namely Task(T), Performance(P) and
experience (E). In this context, we can simplify this definition as −
ML is a field of AI consisting of learning algorithms that −

Improve their performance (P)

At executing some task (T)
Over time with experience (E)
Based on the above, the following diagram represents a Machine Learning Model −
 ASSESSMENT SCHEDULE

Tentative schedule for the Assessment During 2022-

2023 odd semester

Name of the
S.NO Start Date End Date Portion
Assessment
1 FIAT Unit 1 & Unit 2

50
 PRESCRIBED TEXT BOOKS AND REFERENCE BOOKS

TEXT BOOKS:

1. Stuart J. Russell, Peter Norwig , “Artificial Intelligence –A Modern approach”, 3rd

Pearson Education, 2016
2. Ritch & Knight, ”Artificial Intelligence”, Third Edition, Tata McGraw Hill, 2009

REFERENCE BOOKS:

1. Patterson, “Introduction to Artificial Intelligence & Expert Systems”, First Edition,

Pearson, 2015

2. Saroj Kaushik, “Logic & Prolog Programming”, First Edition, New Age International,
2008.

51
 MINI PROJECT SUGGESTIONS

Resume Parser. ...

Fake News Detector. ...
Translator App. ...
Instagram Spam Detection. ...
Object Detection System. ...
Animal Species Prediction. ...
Pneumonia Detection with Python. ...
Teachable Machine.

52
 Thank you

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